The Jews seem early to have consulted the teraphim (q.v.) for oracular answers (Matthew 2:1-1271 ; Zechariah 10:2 ). There is a remarkable illustration of this divining by teraphim in Ezekiel 21:19-22 . We read also of the divining cup of Joseph (Genesis 44:5 ). The magicians of Egypt are frequently referred to in the history of the Exodus. Magic was an inherent part of the ancient Egyptian religion, and entered largely into their daily life. All magical arts were distinctly prohibited under penalty of death in the Mosaic law. The Jews were commanded not to learn the "abomination" of the people of the Promised Land (Leviticus 19:31 ; Deuteronomy 18:9-14 ). The history of Saul's consulting the witch of Endor (1 Samuel 28:3-20 ) gives no warrant for attributing supernatural power to magicians. From the first the witch is here only a bystander. The practice of magic lingered among the people till after the Captivity, when they gradually abandoned it. It is not much referred to in the New Testament. The Magi mentioned in 1618650131_1 were not magicians in the ordinary sense of the word. They belonged to a religious caste, the followers of Zoroaster, the astrologers of the East. Simon, a magician, was found by Philip at Samaria ( Acts 8:9-24 ); and Paul and Barnabas encountered Elymas, a Jewish sorcerer, at Paphos (13:6-12). At Ephesus there was a great destruction of magical books (Acts 19:18,19 ).

An attempt to contact supernatural powers to determine answers to questions hidden to humans and usually involving the future. The practice was widely known in the ancient Middle East, especially among the Babylonians who developed it into a highly respected discipline. Ezekiel 21:21 records, “For the king of Babylon stood at the parting of the way, at the head of the two ways, to use divination: he made his arrows bright, he consulted with images, he looked in the liver.” The ancient Babylonians and Assyrians employed several methods. The Babylonians commonly used hepatoscopy, divination by the liver. The liver of a sacrificial animal by virtue of being considered the seat of life could be observed carefully by specially trained priests to determine the future activities of the gods. For this purpose the priests underwent ceremonial cleansings in preparing to interpret the livers which had carefully been divided into zones, each containing its own secrets. This was done before action was taken on any matter of real gravity. Clay models of animal livers apparently used as instructional tools in teaching the science of hepatoscopy appear in archaeological sites in Babylonia and in Palestine. Other methods included augury (foretelling the future by natural signs, especially the flight of birds), hydromancy (divination by mixing liquids; see Genesis 44:5 ), casting lots (Jonah 1:7-8 ), astrology (2 Kings 21:5 ), necromancy (1 Samuel 28:7-25 ), observing the Urim and Thummim (1 Samuel 28:6 ), and by consulting the liver (Ezekiel 21:21 ). The use of magic is seen often in the literature of the ancient Middle East, employed both by the gods and by human beings. As superhumans, the gods themselves were subject to the higher power of magic. In Enuma Elish, the Babylonian Creation Story, the god of wisdom, Ea, killed his father Apsu, god of the fresh river waters, after reciting a spell. In the same epic, Marduk, the leader of the pantheon, went into battle against Tiamat, goddess of the chaotic sea, with a talisman of red paste in his mouth. Likewise, Tiamat relied on the recitation of a charm to cast a spell. To demonstrate his supreme position in the godhead, Marduk through the magical power of his word caused a piece of cloth to vanish and to reappear. To assure her reappearance on the earth, Ishtar, the goddess of love and fertility, donned charms before descending to the underworld. Similar beliefs in magic are evident from ancient Canaanite myths. The supreme Canaanite deity El acted to heal the ill king Keret by working magic. The goddess Anath through magical means restored the dead Baal to the earth. Paghat, the daughter of the legendary king Daniel, observed the movements of water and of the stars. The Old Testament often attests to the practice of magic by the Hebrews themselves, reflecting how entrenched it was. Saul, the first Hebrew king, is said to have “put away those that had familiar spirits, and the wizards, out of the land” (1 Samuel 28:3 ), but even he later sought out a necromancer (1 Samuel 28:7 ). Jehu responded to the question of Joram, king of Israel, as to whether he came in peace, “What peace, so long as the whoredoms of thy mother Jezebel and her witchcrafts are so many?” (2 Kings 9:22 ). Isaiah 2:6 accuses the house of Jacob of being “full of diviners from the east and of soothsayers like the Philistines” (NRSV). Isaiah 3:2-3 reflects that the society attaches the same importance to “the diviner,” “the skillful magician,” and “the expert in charms” as to “the mighty man, and the soldier, the judge, and the prophet” (RSV). Consequently, King Manasseh could make public use of such services ( 2 Chronicles 33:6 ). The people acted in a similar fashion. Jeremiah 27:9 admonishes the people not to heed “your ^[1] prophets, your diviners, your dreamers, your enchanters, or your sorcerers.” (Compare Jeremiah 29:8 ). Although varying kinds of divination and magic are reported to have been practiced widely in ancient Israel and among her neighbors (Deuteronomy 18:9-14 ; 1 Samuel 6:2 ; Isaiah 19:3 ; Ezekiel 21:21 ; Daniel 2:2 ), Israel herself was clearly and firmly admonished to have no part in such activities. “You shall not practice augury or witchcraft” (Leviticus 19:26 RSV). “Do not turn to mediums or wizards; do not seek them out to be defiled by them” ( Leviticus 19:3 RSV). “If a person turns to mediums and wizards playing the harlot after them, I will set my face against that person and cut him off from among his people” ( Leviticus 20:6 RSV). “A man or a woman who is a medium or a wizard shall be put to death; they shall be stoned with stones, their blood shall be upon them” ( Leviticus 20:27 RSV). “When you come into the land which the Lord your God gives you, you shall not learn to follow the abominable practices of those nations. There shall not be found among you any one who burns his son or his daughter as an offering, any one who practices divination, a soothsayer, or an augur, or a sorcerer, or a charmer, or a medium, or a wizard, or a necromancer. For whoever does these things is an abomination to the Lord; and because of these abominable practices the Lord your God is driving them out before you. You shall be blameless before the Lord your God. For these nations, which you are about to dispossess, give heed to soothsayers and to diviners; but as for you, the Lord your God has not allowed you so to do” ( Deuteronomy 18:9-14 ). “You shall no more see delusive visions nor practice divination” (Ezekiel 13:23 RSV). Karen Joines

MAGIC, DIVINATION, AND SORCERY. Magic, divination, sorcery, and witchcraft are all connected with belief in superhuman powers, and are methods whereby men endeavour to obtain from these powers knowledge of the future, or assistance in the affairs of life. Belief in magic and divination is most prevalent in the lower stages of civilization and religion. The arts of the magician and the diviner were founded upon the same logical processes as have issued in the development of modern science; but the limits within which deduction would be valid were disregarded, and the data were frequently imperfect. Accidental coincidence was often confused with causal sequence. (See Hastings’ DB ^[1] , art. ‘Divination’). Magic and divination were derived from attempts at reasoning which were very often erroneous; but from such crude beginnings science has slowly grown. In their beginning these arts were associated with religion; and diviners and magicians were those thought to be most intimately connected with the Deity, and, owing to their superior knowledge of Him and His ways, best able to learn His secrets or secure His aid. Among the Arabs the priest was originally also the soothsayer ; the Heb. kôhçn , ‘priest,’ is cognate with the Arab. ^[2] kâhin , ‘soothsayer’; the primitive priest had charge of the shrine of the god, and both offered sacrifices and gave responses. In this manner classes of professional diviners and magicians arose, as in Egypt ( Genesis 41:8 , Exodus 7:11 ), in Babylon ( Daniel 2:2 ), in connexion with Baal ( 1 Kings 18:19 ), and even among the Israelites in the lower rank of professed prophets ( Micah 3:5-11 ; see G. A. Smith, Twelve Prophets , Introd.). Such officials were set apart for their office by some rite specially connecting them with the god, as the eating of a particular food, or the wearing of a sacred dress (cf. 2 Kings 1:8 , Zechariah 13:4 ). The animism, in which magical arts had their root, soon passed beyond the simple belief that Nature was peopled with spirits, and began to distinguish between good and evil spirits. When that distinction had been attained, the art of the magician and diviner also became subject to moral distinctions, according to the character of the spirit whose aid was sought and the purpose in view. This diversity in the moral characteristics of magic and divination is illustrated in the history of Israel; for divination is akin to some of the institutions sanctioned by God, such as the Urim and Thummim ( Exodus 28:30 , Leviticus 8:8 ), and it includes, at the other extreme, such necromancy as that of the witch of Endor. Among Semitic races and by the Egyptians, magic and divination were associated with the worship of various gods and the belief in the existence of a vast number of demons. With the gradual rise of religion in Israel under the teaching of God, early modes of prying into the future, and magical methods of seeking superhuman help, were slowly abandoned, and, as revelation became clearer, they were forbidden. The teaching of the inspired prophets of Jehovah was very different from that of the merely professional prophets and from the religion of the common people. Throughout pre-exilic times there was a struggle in Israel between the pure worship of Jehovah alone as inculcated by the great prophets, and the worship of ‘other gods,’ such as the local Canaanitish Baalim and idols in the homes of the people. In process of time magic and divination became closely linked with these illicit cults, and were consequently denounced by the great prophets; but at the same time the desire of the human heart to learn the future and to secure Divine help (which lies at the root of magic and divination) was met by God, purified, elevated, and satisfied by the revelation of His will through the prophets. God’s revelation was suited to the stage of spiritual development to which the people had attained, hence His prophets sometimes employed methods similar to those of divination; consequently some forms of divination are allowed to pass without censure in many passages of the Bible, but these were gradually put aside as the people were educated to a more spiritual conception of religion. On the other hand, as men sought to prognosticate the future by illicit commerce with false gods and spirits, magic and divination became generally degraded and divorced from all that is right and good. This explains the increasing severity with whic magic and divination are regarded in Scripture; nevertheless we find it recorded, without any adverse comment, that Daniel was made head of the ‘wise men’ of Babylon although these included magicians, enchanters, sorcerers, and ‘Chaldæans’ ( Daniel 2:2 ; Daniel 2:48 ); and that the wise men ( Matthew 2:1 ) were magi . (See Grimm-Thayer’s Lex . p. 385.) In explanation it may be said that reliance upon divination is a moral evil in proportion to the religious light vouchsafed to the individuals concerned; and God accommodated the methods of His teaching to the condition of those to whom He revealed Himself. General course of the history of magic and divination in Israel. Several sources can be traced from which the Israelites derived their magical arts, and different periods are apparent at which these influences were felt. ( a ) From patriarchat times up to Israel’s contact with Assyria , most of their occult arts were the outcome of the beliefs common to Semitic peoples. Although their sojourn in Egypt brought them into contact with a civilized nation which greatly practised divination and sorcery, we cannot trace any sign that they borrowed many magical arts from the Egyptians at that time. In this early period of Israelitish history we find divination by teraphim , the interpretation of dreams, and necromancy, besides the authorized means of inquiry of God. The very earliest legislation enacts that witchcraft shall be punished by death ( Exodus 22:18 ^[3]); and we read that Saul put to death ‘those that had familiar spirits and the wizards ’ ( 1 Samuel 28:3 ). ( b ) Under the influence of the Assyrian advance southward , the small States of Palestine were driven into closer relations with one another, owing to the necessity of united opposition to the common foe. This was prejudicial to religion, through its rendering Israel more tolerant towards the gods of their allies ( e.g . the worship of the Phœnician Baal, fostered by Ahab), and by its favouring the introduction of methods of magic and divination in use among their neighbours (cf. Isaiah 2:6 , Jeremiah 10:2 ). This evil tendency was encouraged by Manasseh ( 2 Kings 21:6 ), but in the reformation of Josiah, idolatry, witchcraft, and the use of teraphim were suppressed ( 2 Kings 23:24 ) in accordance with Deuteronomy 18:10-12 (D ^[4] ). ( c ) The Captivity brought Israel into contact with a much more fully developed system of magic and divination than they had known before. In Babylon, not only were illicit magical practices widely indulged in, but the use of such arts was recognized by their being entrusted to a privileged class ( Daniel 2:2 ). The officials are here denominated ‘ magicians ’ ( chartummîm , scribes who were acquainted with occult arts), ‘ enchanters ’ ( ’ashshâphîm , prob. a Bab. ^[5] word meaning ‘those who used conjurations,’ but its derivation is uncertain), ‘ sorcerers ’ ( mĕkashshĕphîm , in its root-meaning perhaps indicating those who mixed ingredients for magical purposes ^[6] pharmakoi ], but this is not certain), and ‘ Chaldæans ’ ( kasdîm , a name which, from being a national designation, had come to mean those who were skilled in the occult lore of Babylonia and could interpret dreams). Recent discoveries have revealed that the Babylonians believed in a vast number of demons who could be compelled by proper spells; also they practised astrology ( Isaiah 47:12-13 ), augury from the inspection of victims ( Ezekiel 21:21 ), the tying of magic knots, and the designation of fortunate and unfavourable days. ( d ) Egyptian influences were strongly felt in the century before, and the one following, the Christian era. The Mishna shows the presence of a very strong tendency to occult sciences, and in the NT we find examples of Jews who practised them in Simon Magus ( Acts 8:9 ) and Elymas ( Acts 13:8 ). Among the Alexandrian Jews, and later by the Alexandrian Gnostics, magic was much used, and the name of Jehovah in various forms entited into their spells and the inscriptions upon their amulets. Books of incantations , reputed to have been the work of Solomon, were extant, and the Babylonian Talmud is full of superstition (Schürer, HJP ^[7] ii. iii. 152). Such books and charms were burnt at Ephesus when their owners became Christians ( Acts 19:19 ). So celebrated was Ephesus for its magic, that ‘Ephesian letters’ was a common name for amulets made of leather, wood, or metal on which a magic spell was written (Farrar, St. Paul , ii. 26). A. Distinguishing divination , in which prominence is given to the desire to know the future, from magic , which has for its object power to do something by supernatural aid, we have now to inquire into the modes of divination and magic which appear in the Scriptures. Forms of divination mentioned in the Bible ( a ) The casting of lots . The casting of lots was founded on the belief that God would so direct the result as to indicate His will ( Proverbs 16:33 ). It was employed: (1) In crises in national history and in individual lives . Most scholars consider that the phrase ‘enquire of God’ refers to the use of Urim and Thummim , which seems to have been of the nature of drawing lots. This occurs in the arrangements for the conquest of Canaan ( Judges 1:1 ), in the campaign against the Benjamites ( Judges 20:27 ), in David’s uncertainty after the death of Saul ( 2 Samuel 2:1 ), and in war ( 2 Samuel 5:19 ; 2 Samuel 5:23 ). The Phœnicians cast lots to discover the cause of the tempest ( Jonah 1:7 ). (2) In criminal investigation . It was employed to discover the wrongdoer in the cases of Achan ( Joshua 7:14 ) and Jonathan ( 1 Samuel 14:41-42 ). (3) In ritual . Lots were cast in reference to the scapegoat ( Leviticus 16:8 ). Two goats were brought, and lots were cast; one goat was offered as a sin-offering, and the other was sent away into the wilderness. (4) In dividing the land of Canaan ( Numbers 26:55 ; Numbers 33:54 ; Numbers 34:13 , Joshua 21:4 ; Joshua 21:6 ; Joshua 21:8 ). (5) In selecting men for special duties : the election of Saul ( 1 Samuel 10:20 ), the choice of the men to attack Gibeah ( Judges 20:9 ), the division of duties among the priests ( 1 Chronicles 24:5 ). In most cases the method of casting the lot is not stated. Several ways were in use among the Israelites, some of which were directly sanctioned by God as a means of Divine guidance suited to the degree of religious knowledge attained by the people at the time. The following methods can be distinguished: (i.) By Urim and Thummim . Although not certain, it is believed by most scholars that the Urim and Thummim were two stones which were carried in a pouch under the breastplate of the priest, and which were drawn out as lots (see Hastings’ DB ^[1] s.v . ‘Urim and Thummim’). In connexion with this the ephod is mentioned. In some passages this evidently means a priestly dress ( e.g . 1 Samuel 2:18 ; 1 Samuel 22:18 ), but in other references it is considered by some to have been an image of gold representing Jehovah ( Judges 8:25 ; Judges 8:27 ; Judges 18:14 ^[9]) or the gold sheathing of an image ( Isaiah 30:22 ), although in this passage some understand it as being a garment. The use of the ephod in connexion with the Urim and Thummim is not known. The employment of the Urim and Thummim for consulting God disappeared before the clearer guidance received through the inspired prophets. Apparently it had ceased by the time of Israel’s return from the Captivity ( Ezra 2:63 ). Inquiry respecting the future was also made of heathen deities ( 2 Kings 1:2 f.), and their responses were probably given by the drawing of lots. (ii.) By belomancy and in other ways . The word qâsam (which is specially applied to the drawing of lots as with headless arrows) is used of divination generally and frequently translated ‘to divine.’ It is generally referred to unfavourably (except Proverbs 16:10 ). Arrows are once specified as the means by which the lot was cast ( Ezekiel 21:21-22 ). This practice is found among the Arabs, and was also used in Babylonia. Arrows with the alternatives written upon them were shaken in a quiver at a sanctuary, and the first to fall out was taken as conveying the decision of the god. Nebuchadnezzar is represented as deciding in this manner his line of march ( Ezekiel 21:21 ), and, as the result of casting the lot, holding in his hand ‘the divination Jerusalem,’ i.e . the arrow with ‘Jerusalem’ written upon it (see Driver, Deut . p. 224). Without any indication of the method of divination, operations denoted by the word qesem appear among the Moabites (Balaam, Numbers 23:23 , payment being made for the service, Numbers 22:7 ), among the Philistines ( 1 Samuel 6:2 ), and among the Babylonians ( Isaiah 44:25 ). It also appears as a method of the lower rank of prophets in Israel ( Micah 3:8-11 , Ezekiel 13:6 ; Ezekiel 13:9 ; Ezekiel 22:28 ). Prophets are named in connexion with diviners ( qôsĕmîm , Jeremiah 27:9 ; Jeremiah 29:8 ). The word is used in relation to necromancy and the consultation of teraphim ( 1 Samuel 15:23 ; 1Sa 28:8 , 2 Kings 17:17 , Zechariah 10:2 ). The practice is forbidden in Deuteronomy 18:10 . (iii.) By rhabdomancy . This is alluded to in Hosea 4:12 . Probably pieces of stick were used for drawing lots, as in the case of divination by arrows. ( b ) Dreams and visions . Numerous instances occur in which Divine intimations were communicated to men by dreams and visions. (1) In so far as these were spontaneous and unsought, they do not properly belong to the domain of divination. Such occur in Genesis 20:8 ; Genesis 28:12 ; Genesis 31:10 ; Genesis 31:24 ; Gen 37:5 , 1 Kings 3:5 , Matthew 1:20 ; Matthew 2:12 ; Matthew 27:19 . Dreams are spoken of as a legitimate channel for God’s communications to His prophets and others ( Numbers 12:6 , 1 Samuel 28:6 , Job 33:15 , Joel 2:28 ). (2) But the belief in Divine warnings through dreams came very near to divination when Interpreters were sought to make clear their meaning, as in Egypt ( Genesis 40:5 ff; Genesis 41:1 Peterharaoh calls the chartummîm a word used only in the sense of scribes possessed of occult knowledge), among the Midianites ( Judges 7:13 ), and in Babylon ( Daniel 2:2 ). (3) Dreams were sought by the prophets of a lower order in Israel, and it is known that among the Egyptians and other ancient nations special means, such as fasting or drugs, were used to induce them, from the belief that they were Divine communications. In Egypt it was a common practice for worshippers to sleep within the precincts of the temples in order to obtain intimations by dreams, and some devotees lived by the rewards received by them for recounting the dreams which had come to them in the temple. References to misleading divination by dreams occur in Deuteronomy 13:1-5 (prophets were to he judged by the character of their teaching and to be put to death if they favoured idolatry), Jeremiah 23:25-28 ; Jeremiah 27:9 ; Jeremiah 29:8 , Zechariah 10:2 . Vision ( châzôn , with its cognate words) has a similarly wide application, extending from the God-given experiences of the higher prophets to the misleading predictions of false prophets. Instances of its highest signification occur in Isaiah 1:1 ; Isaiah 2:1 , Amos 1:1 , Micah 1:1 . The word is used respecting the deception practised by lower prophets, as in Numbers 24:3 ; Numbers 24:16 , where reference is apparently made to the seer receiving the intimation in a trance, but the interpretation is not quite certain (see Gray, Numbers , p. 361); other physical phenomena appear in connexion with prophesying ( 1 Samuel 10:10 ; 1 Samuel 19:18-24 ; see G. A. Smith, Twelve Prophets , i. p. 21). The word also appears in connexion with false prophets ( Isaiah 28:7 ; Isaiah 30:10 , Lamentations 2:14 , Ezekiel 12:24 ; Ezekiel 13:6 , Ezekiel 13:16 , 28; Ezekiel 21:29 ; Ezekiel 22:28 , Zechariah 10:2 ). ( c ) Observation of omens ( augury ). nâchash , tr. ^[10] ‘to divine’ or ‘to use enchantments,’ the agent being called ‘an enchanter’ ( Deuteronomy 18:10 ), means ‘to learn by means of omens.’ Very probably the expression is derived from nâchâsh , ‘a serpent,’ with the underlying idea that the intimation was obtained by the worshipper through the assistance of the serpent-god; another, but less likely, derivation is from the ‘hissing’ or ‘whispering’ tones of the diviner. The word is very frequently used with a bad sense attaching to it. Words were sometimes taken as omens of the future (1 Kings 20:33 RVm ^[11] ‘took it as an omen,’ also 1 Samuel 14:16 ). The movements of animals also constituted omens. It was considered by the Arabs that some animals, under the influence of a higher power, could see what was invisible to men, and consequently their action became an omen. It would be quite in accordance with this that Balaam’s ass should see what was hidden from her master ( Numbers 22:27 ); a similar belief in the significance of the movements of animals is shown in the lords of the Philistines watching the way the kine took with the ark of God ( 1 Samuel 6:12 ). The methods of divination by omens are often unexpressed, as Genesis 30:27 , Leviticus 19:26 , 2Ki 17:17 ; 2 Kings 21:8 , 2 Chronicles 33:6 . The following practices in divination by omens appear: (i.) By hydromancy ( Genesis 44:5 ). In Egypt it was common to attempt to divine the future by the appearance of the liquid in a goblet or dish. (ii.) By the observation of the clouds . The clouds were carefully studied by diviners among the Chaldæans, and the word ônçn seems to indicate this practice as existing among the Hebrews and Philistines ( Isaiah 2:5 ; see Cheyne, Isaiah , vol. i. p. 17). Driver, however, leaves the kind of divination undecided, and suggests a derivation from an Arabic root meaning ‘to murmur’ or ‘whisper,’ the reference being to the mutterings of the soothsayer ( Deut . p. 224). Perhaps it meant the bringing of clouds by magic arts, as in Jeremiah 14:22 (see Delitzsch on Isaiah 2:6 ). It has also been suggested that the word is a denominative from ayin (‘eye’), and means ‘to glance with an evil eye.’ This form of augury was forbidden ( Leviticus 19:26 , Deuteronomy 18:10 ), and those practising it were denounced ( Micah 5:12 , Jeremiah 27:9 ). Manasseh fostered it ( 2 Kings 21:8 , 2 Chronicles 33:6 ). (iii.) By astrology . The stare were very early believed to have an influence on the fortunes of men ( Judges 5:20 , Job 38:33 ). Professional astrologers were prominent among the Assyrians and Babylonians, among whom a standard astrological work was constructed as early as the 16th cent. b.c. (Cheyne, Isaiah , vol. i. p. 310). Babylonian astrology, with its announcement of coming events and notification of favourable and unpropitious days (such as are now extant on Babylonian clay tablets), is mentioned in Isaiah 47:13 ; but astrology does not seem to have been practised by Israel in early times; Jeremiah speaks of it as ‘the way of the nations,’ and warns the people against it. In later times astrology was regarded by the Jews in a less unfavourable lignt: e.g . Daniel 2:48 , where Daniel is made chief of ten wise men who included astrologers (cf. Matthew 2:1-23 , where the wise men, who appear to have been astrologers, were met by God in their darkness, and led to the infant Saviour ^[12]). (iv.) By inspecting victims . Forecasting the future from the appearance of the livers of victims is mentioned in Ezekiel 21:21 . This was common in Babylon (Diod. Sic. ii. 29) and also among the Romans (Cic. de Divin . ii. 12). It does not appear to have been in use among the Israelites; the sacrifices of Balaam ( Numbers 23:1 ; Numbers 23:14 ) were not for this purpose, but to propitiate the deity consulted. Connected with the use of omens is the appointment of ‘ signs ’ by prophets to assist their consultors in believing what they predicted. Signs were given by God and His prophets as well as by false prophets; these were exhibitions of Divine power in smaller matters by which men might be enabled to trust God in things of greater moment ( Judges 6:36 ); or they were Instances of truth in small predictions, to awaken confidence in greater promises or threatenings ( Exodus 4:8 ; Exodus 10:2 , Isaiah 7:11 ); or they were simply the attachment of particular meaning to ordinary facts to remind men of God’s promises or threats ( Genesis 9:12 ; Genesis 17:11 , Isaiah 8:18 , Ezekiel 12:11 , Zechariah 3:8 ). In the time of Christ such signs were demanded by the Jews ( Matthew 12:38 ; Matthew 16:1 , Luke 11:16 , John 4:46 , 1 Corinthians 1:22 ). Cf. art. Sion. ( d ) Necromancy and familiar spirits. Of these there were two kinds: (1) A spirit (primarily a subterranean spirit, ’ôb ) was conceived as dwelling in a human being ( Leviticus 20:27 ), most commonly in a woman. Those thus possessed were sometimes called ’ôbôth ( Isaiah 8:19 ), or the woman was denominated ba‘alath’ôb ( 1 Samuel 28:7 ). Another explanation (H. P. Smith, Samuel , p. 239) makes the ’ôb a sort of idol, on the ground that Manasseh ‘made’ an ’ôb ( 2 Kings 21:6 ) and that it is classed with teraphim ( 2 Kings 23:24 ). These necromancers professed to have the power of call

People have from earliest times had the urge to use supernatural (occult) forces to help them know the future. The foretelling of events in this way is sometimes called divination (Acts 16:16-18). Magic, witchcraft and sorcery go beyond divination in that they seek to use occult powers not merely to foretell future events but also to influence those events. Such magic often has an evil intent, being directed at enemies by means of curses, spells and ritualistic actions. Sometimes it may have a partly good intent in trying to reverse evil spells and curses (Numbers 24:1; Numbers 24:10; 1 Samuel 6:2; Colossians 3:1-371; 2 Kings 21:6; Ezekiel 13:17-192; Revelation 9:21). But divination and sorcery derive their power from the demons of the spirit world, and for this reason the Bible condemns them (Leviticus 19:26; Leviticus 19:31; Leviticus 20:6; Leviticus 20:27; Deuteronomy 18:10-11; 2 Kings 21:6; 2 Kings 23:24; Galatians 5:19-20; Revelation 9:21; Revelation 21:8; Revelation 22:15). Sorcerers often used their powers in deliberate opposition to God (Acts 13:8; Acts 19:19; 2 Timothy 3:8). Among the methods of divination and sorcery mentioned in the Bible are throwing arrows into the air and observing the pattern formed when they fall (Ezekiel 21:21), consulting idolatrous figures or images (Ezekiel 21:21), looking into the liver of a sacrificed animal (Ezekiel 21:21), consulting the spirits of the dead (1 Samuel 28:8-9), studying the movements of the stars (Isaiah 47:13), gazing into a bowl or large cup of water (Genesis 44:5; Genesis 44:15) and using wristbands and veils in weird rituals to cast deadly spells over people (1618650131_23). Magicians were among the chief advisers to kings in many ancient countries (Exodus 7:11; Daniel 2:2). Divination, witchcraft and all these associated practices are contrary to the ways of God, not only because they depend on evil spiritual powers for their operation, but also because they are a denial of faith. True believers walk humbly with their God, accepting that, no matter what the circumstances, God is still in control of their affairs. Having been saved by faith, they now live by faith (Galatians 2:20; Ephesians 4:17-24; Colossians 1:11-13; Hebrews 11:6). Jesus Christ has triumphed over all the unseen powers of evil, and through him believers too can triumph (Ephesians 1:19-21; Ephesians 2:6; Colossians 2:8-10; 1618650131_4). They believe in the power of the living Christ, but they do not treat that power as if it is magical (Acts 19:13-16).

Magic was the art of influencing future events and changing their course by dark and secret means. Of the religion of the Egyptians, Chaldæans, Persians, etc., magic formed an essential element, and of the Egyptian magicians, in their conflict with Moses and Aaron, Exodus gives a vivid account. 7:11, 12, 22; 8:7. Of the religion of the Jews magic did not only not form a part, but the law forbade the consulting of magicians, under penalty of death. Leviticus 19:31; Leviticus 20:6. Nevertheless, from their neighbors magic crept in among the Israelites. The most remarkable instance is that of Saul and the sorceress of Endor. 1 Samuel 28:3-20. Also in the New Testament we find it mentioned. Acts 8:9.

Bands or cushions placed on the wrist in magical practices (Ezekiel 13:18 ,Ezekiel 13:18,13:20 ). The KJV translates “pillows.” Their precise nature is unknown. Apparently they represented part of a diviner's paraphanalia used to determine the destinies the gods had determined. See Kerchiefs .

See Magic Bands .

The Old Testament . Magic—the attempt to exploit supernatural powers by formulaic recitations to achieve goals that were otherwise unrealizablewas seen in a negative light in the Old Testament (Leviticus 19:26,31 ; 20:6 ; 1 Samuel 28:9 ; Isaiah 8:19 ; 44:25 ; 57:3 ; Jeremiah 27:9 ; Ezekiel 22:28 ; Micah 5:12 ; Nahum 3:4 ; Malachi 3:5 ) and was banned under penalty of death (Exodus 22:18 ; Leviticus 20:27 ; Deuteronomy 18:10-11 ). However, many Canaanite magical practices were later widespread in the divided monarchy: Jezebel practiced sorcery (2 Kings 9:22 ); Manasseh encouraged divination (2 Kings 21:6 ; 2 Chronicles 33:6 ); Hebrew seers and diviners practiced the magic arts (Micah 3:7 ); and Isaiah condemned women who wore charms (Isaiah 3:18-23 ). The multiplicity of terminology used in the bans testifies that magic was a pervasive problem in the Israelite world. However, many of the banned terms (primarily in Deuteronomy 18:10-11 ) have defied easy explanation, including child sacrifice (possibly used for divinatory purposes Deuteronomy 18:10 ; 2 Kings 21:6 ), types of divination (Numbers 23:23 ; Deuteronomy 18:10-11 ; 1 Samuel 15:23 ; 2 Kings 17:17 ; Micah 3:6 ), sorceries (Exodus 22:18 ; Deuteronomy 18:11 ; Jeremiah 27:9 ; Micah 5:12 ; Malachi 3:5 ), and necromancy (1 Samuel 28 ). Magic was considered an aspect of pagan wisdom; magicians were counted as wise men (Psalm 58:5 ; Daniel 1:20 ; 2:13 ) and officials of foreign governments (Genesis 41:6 ; Exodus 7:11 ; Daniel 2:2 ). Different from pagan sources, the Old Testament writers did not see a connection between magic and the gods. Foreign magicians in Scripture did not invoke help of their gods for magical formulas, but often called upon self-operating forces that were independent of the gods (Isaiah 47:13 ; the monotheistic Israelites did not accept the existence of the foreign gods ). Moreover, the biblical writers seemed to attribute a reality to magical power that it did not ascribe to the gods. Magic was considered human rebellion that unlocked divine secrets, making humanity equal with God. Although there was a formal ban on magic, Israelite religion appeared on the surface to have adopted some Canaanite magical practices. There are many references scattered throughout the Old Testament to various imitative magical practices, including the use of clothing (2 Kings 2:13-14 ), magic staffs (Exodus 7:9 ), hands (2 Kings 5:11 ), mandrakes (Genesis 30:14-18 ), instruments (2 Kings 6:7 ), hair (Judges 16:17 ), whispering (2 Samuel 12:19 ), spells (Joshua 10:12 ), belomancy (1 Samuel 20:20-22 ), hydromancy (Exodus 15:25 ), and various blessings, curses, and dreams. Old Testament ceremonial regulations appear to have had a magical flavor to them. Animals for sacrifice had to be the proper age, sex, and color; many were probably not used because they were utilized in the magic arts of the Canaanites (Deuteronomy 14:21 ). However, foreign materials and technical terms of magic were simply used as vehicles of expression in Israelite religion. The magical features preserved ancient elements whose original meaning had been radically altered. The writers stripped the magical actions of their autonomous power and made them serve as vehicles of God's will. Yahweh's name was invoked by the miracle worker (Exodus 7:8-9 ; 15:25 ; 1 Kings 17:21 ; 2 Kings 2:14 ). Miracles were merely signs validating the mission of the prophet, who did not work by his skill but by the power of Yahweh (Exodus 3:14-17 ; Deuteronomy 13:2-3 ; Judges 6:17,36 ; 1 Kings 18:36 ; Isaiah 7:10-11 ). The writers took great pains to show that Moses was helpless without God (Exodus 4:10 ; 6:12,30 ). Even Balaam, both a magician and prophet, could only do God's will (Numbers 23:12 ). God could overturn a curse and make it a blessing (Psalm 109:28 ). The man of God healed the sick, revealed hidden things, performed wonders, and pronounced curses and blessings, just like a pagan magician. However, it was not done with any technical skill, nor were these people praised for any wisdom (2 Kings 5:11 ). All procedures were commonplace and untraditional. The Israelites viewed divination as a subsidiary of magic. The biblical writers banned all of the foreign techniques employed for divinatory oracles (Leviticus 20:6,27 ; Deuteronomy 18:10 ; 1 Samuel 28:3 ; 2 Kings 23:24 ; Isaiah 2:6 ; 8:19 ; 57:3 ; Ezekiel 13:17 ), including hydromancy (Genesis 44:5,15 ) and astrology (Isaiah 47:13 ; Jeremiah 10:2 ). They were distinguished from inquiries of Yahweh (Urim and Thummin, Numbers 27:21 ; ephod, 1 Samuel 23:9 ; lots, Numbers 26:55 ; dreams, 1 Samuel 28:6 ) on the grounds that divination was a custom of the nations. However, the Israelites believed in its power (1 Samuel 28:8-20 ). As with magic, the biblical writers did not view divination as connected with the gods, but instead considered it a magic or wisdom art that revealed secrets of God in a wrong way (Isaiah 19:3 ; Ezekiel 21:26 ; Hosea 4:12 ). Thus, the divinatory technician trusted in omens and in human wisdom, rather than in God. Inquiry was acceptable, as long as it was only to God and confirmed by him (Judges 6:36 ; 7:4 ; 2 Samuel 5:23 ). The Israelites preferred the simple technique of lot inquiry, addressing God and relying on his decision instead of going through an elaborate system of ritual. In sum, they did not reject divination in the strictest sense, but approved of the technique of inquiring of God to learn of his decisions. The New Testament . Magical practices were also prevalent in the New Testament world. Although the New Testament writers did not explicitly condemn magic, none who practiced magic arts were described in a flattering way. There were numerous warnings against sorcery (Gk. pharmakos [ Galatians 5:20 ; Revelation 9:21 ; 18:23 ; 21:8 ; 22:15 ). New Testament Christians viewed magical practices like their Old Testament counterparts. Although Simon the magician (Gk. magos [ Matthew 2:1-16 ; Acts 13:6-8 ) was severely criticized by Peter (Acts 8:9-24 ), the efficacy of his power was not denied, and he was considered dangerous. The story of Bar-Jesus (who attempted to resist Paul and Barnabas Acts 13:4-12 ) was used by the writer to exhibit the differences between Christ and magic. The only other magicians mentioned by name were Jannes and Jambres, the Egyptian priests of Moses' time (2 Timothy 3:6-8 ); these names were noted in later Jewish writings and even by Pliny the Elder, who thought Moses was one of the Egyptian magicians (Natural History 30,1 11). These two were looked upon by Paul as examples of those who opposed the truth. The one who had a spirit of divination (Gk. pneuma python normally a spirit connected with the Delphic oracle Acts 16:16 ) was forced to acknowledge Jesus, but the apostles did not accept this testimony because of the ungodly source. The burning of books on magic arts (Acts 19:19-20 ) was seen as a sign that the word of the Lord was growing. Seducers (a term that probably signified a spell-binding magician 2 Timothy 3:13 ) were thought by Paul to be deceived, and Paul claimed figuratively that the Galatians had been bewitched (Galatians 3:1 ). He likely alluded to magical practices in his treatment of heresy in Colossians 2:8-23 . Many of the accepted practices in the New Testament (exorcisms, faith healing, and the use of lots Acts 1:26 ) could have been construed by the Gentiles as similar to their own rituals. In fact, there were some linguistic similarities between words used for exorcism and healing in the New Testament and pagan magical rites. The Gentiles saw miracles as magical in nature, and thus confused those of the apostles with their own magic (Acts 8:9-11 ). The exorcisms of Jesus appeared to some as magical (Matthew 12:25-37 ; Mark 3:23-30 ; Luke 11:17-20 ), as well as his use of saliva to heal the blind (Mark 7:33 ). In fact, some rabbinical references claimed that Jesus was a magician. But the New Testament writers regarded Jesus and the apostles' miraculous Acts as of divine origin. The healing of the woman with the issue of blood was done because of her faith (Matthew 9:20-22 ; Mark 5:25-34 ; Luke 9:34-38 ), not by magic. Mark W. Chavalas See also Divination ; Idol, Idolatry Bibliography . H. C. Brichto, The Problem of "Curse" in the Hebrew Bible ; A. Guillaume, Prophecy and Divination Among the Hebrews and Other Semites ; H. Huggman, The Word of the Lord Shall Go Forth :Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman inCelebration of His Sixtieth Birthday, pp. 355-59; S. Iwry, JAOS 81 (1961): 27-34; J. Lindbloom, VT 12 (1962): 164-78; M. Unger, Biblical Demonology ; R. B. Zuck, Bibliotheca Sacra 128 (1971): 362-60.

See Divination.

A science which teaches to produce surprising and extraordinary effects; a correspondence with bad spirits, by means of which a person is able to perform surprising things. This was strictly forbidden by the law of God, on pain of death, Leviticus 19:31 .

(1): (a.) A comprehensive name for all of the pretended arts which claim to produce effects by the assistance of supernatural beings, or departed spirits, or by a mastery of secret forces in nature attained by a study of occult science, including enchantment, conjuration, witchcraft, sorcery, necromancy, incantation, etc. (2): (a.) Alt. of Magical

In the Bible, all the superstitious ceremonies of magicians, sorcerers, enchanters, necromancers, spiritualists, exorcists, astrologers, soothsayers, interpreters of dreams, fortune-tellers, casters of nativities, etc., which are all forbidden by the law of God, whether practiced to hurt or to benefit mankind. It was also forbidden to consult magicians on pain of death, Leviticus 19:31 20:6 . See ENCHANTMENTS and SORCERERS.

Magic is "the science or practice of evoking spirits, or educing the occult powers of nature to produce effects apparently supernatural." It formed an essential element in many ancient religions, especially among the Persians, Chaldeans and Egyptians. The Hebrews had no magic of their own. It was so strictly forbidden by the law that it could never afterward have had any: recognized existence, save in times of general heresy or apostasy and the same was doubtless the case in the patriarchal ages. The magical practices which obtained among the Hebrews were therefore borrowed from the nations around. From the first entrance into the land of promise until the destruction of Jerusalem we have constant glimpses of magic practiced in secret, or resorted to not alone by the common but also as the great. It is a distinctive characteristic of the Bible that from first to last it warrants no such trust or dread. Laban attached great value to, and was in the habit of consulting, images. (Genesis 31:30,32 ) During the plagues in Egypt the magicians appear. (Exodus 7:11 ; 8:18,19 ) Balaam also practiced magic. (Numbers 22:7 ) Saul consulted the witch of Endor. An examination of the various notices of magic in the Bible gives this general result: They do not, act far as can be understood, once state positively that any but illusive results were produced by magical rites. (Even the magicians of Egypt could imitate the plagues sent through Moses only so long as they had previous notice and time to prepare. The time Moses sent the plague unannounced the magicians failed; they "did so with their enchantments," but in vain. So in the case of the witch of Endor. Samuel appearance was apparently unexpected by her; he did not come through the enchantments. --Ed.) The Scriptures therefore afford no evidence that man can gain supernatural powers to use at his will. This consequence goes some way toward showing that we may conclude that there is no such thing se real magic; for although it is dangerous to reason on negative evidence, yet in a case of this kind it is especially strong. ^[1]