Hymn for Lauds on the Feast of the Epiphany. It was written by Prudentius (348-413), and has 22 translations. The English title given is by E. Caswall.

REFUGE, CITIES OF 1. Origin of the right of asylum . The city of refuge was the product of two primitive religious ideas that were employed to neutralize one another, the sacredness of blood or life and the sacredness of locality; both were based on the presence of the Divine in the blood and the locality. There was a community of blood or life between the god and his people that made it an unpardonable offence to slay one of his people; it mattered not whether the slayer was within or without his people, whether the deed was intentional or accidental. A wrong had been done that could be atoned for only by blood (Robertson Smith, RS ^[1] , ^[2] p. 32 ff.). On the other hand, the god chose certain places for his manifestation, and there it was customary for his people to meet and worship him. Within the precincts claimed by his presence all life was sacred, and so it came about that even a murderer, if he escaped to the haunts of a god, would be safe from those to whom he had forfeited his life, so long as he remained within their sacred limits ( ib . p. 148 f.). The murderer thus escaped the penalty of his wrong, but he remained an ineffective unit for his tribe; immediately he left the asylum of the god he was at the mercy of the avenger of blood , and so both tribe and individual were in a measure punished. This primitive usage still prevails in savage communities, and has been widened by extending the privilege of asylum to places occupied by former kings and to the graves of former rulers (Frazer, Fort. Review , 1899, pp. 650 654). 2. Development of asylum in OT . In this absolute form the right of asylum is not recognized anywhere in the OT. It is extended only to one who has without intention committed homicide ( Exodus 21:13 ). One who has treacherously sullied his hands with blood can find no refuge at the altar of God; he may be taken from it to death ( Joshua 20:7-8 ), or he may even be struck down at the altar, as was the fate of Joab ( 1 Kings 2:30-31 ; 1 Kings 2:34 ). The community came between the fugitive and the avenger of blood, and determined whether he should be handed over to death. This was likely the result of the fusion of different tribes and the necessity of recognizing one common authority. We can trace three stages of development of this right of asylum in the OT. (1) Every altar or sanctuary in the land could extend its protection to one who had without intention taken the life of another. He had to justify his claim to protection by showing to the authorities of the sanctuary that his deed was unpremeditated. But after the fugitive had submitted satisfactory evidence, he was allowed to remain within the sacred precincts. He could not, however, return home, and had evidently to pass the remainder of his life in the refuge to which he had fled. He could not appease the avenger by money. His want of prudence must entail some punishment, and so he could not pass beyond the city boundaries without risk of death at the hands of the avenger of blood. What provision was made for his maintenance is not revealed, but very likely he had to win his subsistence by his work. Whether his family could join him in his asylum is a question that is also unanswered. This is the stage of development in Exodus 21:13-14 , 1 Kings 1:50 ; 1Ki 2:28 ; 1 Kings 2:34 . It is not at all likely that Joab’s death was brought about at the altar in Jerusalem because of some exceptional authority exercised over it by the king. Joab evidently knew he could be put to death there ( 1 Kings 2:30 ). (2) When the provincial high places and altars were suppressed by Josiah in b.c. 621, the right of asylum there fell with them, and provision had to be made for the continuance of ancient usage on a modified basis. Very likely there was less need for it, as the power of the Crown had been growing. Cities of refuge, situated at convenient distances, were set apart for the manslayer ( Deuteronomy 19:2-7 ), and it may even be that the roads thither were specially kept and marked to make escape easy ( Deuteronomy 19:3 ; but cf. Steuernagel, Deut . p. 71 f.). The fugitive had to justify his claim to protection by showing to the elders of the city whither he had fled his innocence of murderous motives. Any one who failed to convince them of the validity of his defence was handed over to the elders of his own city, and they in turn surrendered him to the avenger of blood. Practically, then, the community administered justice, but when the death penalty was to be exacted, it was exacted not by the community, but by the avenger of blood in accordance with primitive usage ( Deuteronomy 19:12-13 ). (3) In post-exilic times the cities of refuge established under the Deuteronomic Code remained, and the judicial procedure followed was very much the same, only the community presumably at Jerusalem and not the elders of the city of refuge (Numbers 35:12 ; Numbers 35:24-25 ) was to determine the guilt or the innocence of the fugitive. Joshua 20:4 , however, contemplates a provisional inquiry by the elders of the city before protection is granted. The law was mitigated so far that the unwitting manslayer was no longer doomed to spend all his days there but was free to return to his home on the death of the high priest of the time ( Numbers 35:25 ; Numbers 35:23 , Joshua 20:6 ). This points to the post-exilic origin of this modification. The high priest was then the only constituted authority that Jewish law could recognize. 3. Number of cities of refuge . The statements bearing on the number of the cities of refuge are conflicting ( Numbers 35:11 ; Numbers 35:13-15 , Deuteronomy 4:41-43 ; Deuteronomy 19:7-10 , Joshua 20:2 ; Exodus 21:14 ; cf. Driver, Deut . pp. 78, 233; Gray, Num . p. 469). Ultimately there were six, but at first there appear to have been only three ( Deuteronomy 19:2 ; Deuteronomy 19:7 ). They were established first in the time of Josiah when the boundaries and the population of the Jewish State would be comparatively small, and Jewish authority did not likely cross the Jordan to the east. In such conditions three cities would be ample. But when in post-exilic times the Jews covered a wider area, there would naturally be need for more cities; and so we find the number in Numbers and Joshua stated at six, and additions made to the text in Deuteronomy 4:41-43 ; Deuteronomy 19:3 to suggest that the number six had been contemplated from the beginning. These six cities were Kedesh, Shechem, and Hebron on the west, all well-known sanctuaries from early times, and Golan, Ramoth, and Bezer on the east. Of the situation of these last we know nothing definitely; even the site of Ramoth, to which reference is made elsewhere in the OT ( 1 Kings 4:13 ; 1 Kings 22:3 ff.), is a subject of doubt (see G. A. Smith, HGHL ^[3] p. 587; Driver, Deut . xviii, xix), but they probably shared the sacred character of the cities on the west. J. Gilroy.

There were in Palestine (1) cities, (2) unwalled villages, and (3) villages with castles or towers (1 Chronicles 27:25 ). Cities, so called, had walls, and were thus fenced. The fortifications consisted of one or two walls, on which were towers or parapets at regular intervals (2 Chronicles 32:5 ; Jeremiah 31:38 ). Around ancient Jerusalem were three walls, on one of which were ninety towers, on the second fourteen, and on the third sixty. The tower of Hananeel, near the north-east corner of the city wall, is frequently referred to (Nehemiah 3:1 ; 12:39 ; Zechariah 14:10 ). The gateways of such cities were also fortified (Nehemiah 2:8 ; 3:3,6 ; Judges 16:2,3 ; 1 Samuel 23:7 ). The Hebrews found many fenced cities when they entered the Promised Land (Numbers 13:28 ; 32:17,34-42 ; Joshua 11:12,13 ; Judges 1:27-33 ), and we may estimate the strength of some of these cities from the fact that they were long held in possession by the Canaanites. The Jebusites, e.g., were enabled to hold possession of Jerusalem till the time of David (2 Samuel 5:6,7 ; 1 Chronicles 11:5 ). Several of the kings of Israel and Judah distinguished themselves as fortifiers or "builders" of cities.

(Orei Miklat): In biblical times, six cities in the Land of Israel were designated as "cities of refuge." A person who accidentally killed someone found safe haven there from avenging relatives.

Store cities which the Israelites built for the Egyptians (Exodus 1:11 ). (See PITHOM .) Towns in which the treasures of the kings of Judah were kept were so designated ( 1 Chronicles 27:25 ).

The term “fortified city” (often “fenced city” or “defenced city” in the KJV) refers to a town with strong defenses, usually a massive wall structure and inner citadels or strongholds. In general the fortified city was a major military or administrative center for a region. Size was not so much the factor, though many of the fortified cities were large cities. Location was much more critical. The Bible contains two lists of fortified cities, one for Naphtali (Joshua 19:35-38 ), and a list of cities Rehoboam fortified for Judah (2 Chronicles 11:5-12 ). These two lists seem to include most of the walled cities within the tribal area. Among the more important cities in these lists are Hazor in Naphtali and Bethlehem, Tekoa, Hebron, Gath, and Lachish in Judah. At the end of the monarchy, Jeremiah reported that the Babylonians had conquered all the fortified cities of Judah except Lachish and Azekah (Jeremiah 34:6-7 ). Fortified cities served a strategic function. They could guard a major highway (as did Lachish and Hazor). They could protect mountain passes (Megiddo and Taanach). They could serve as border fortresses (Arad and Hazor). Surely troops would be garrisoned in a fortified city. At times of imminent danger, much of the populace from the surrounding area might find protection in a fortified city (Jeremiah 4:5 ; Jeremiah 8:14 ). Other closely related terms used in the Bible include chariot cities and store cities (1 Kings 9:19 ). Chariot cities were major military centers where the chariot troops were garrisoned. Store cities probably served as central supply bases for the military. Each had an important role in the defense of the nation. Chariot cities and store cities were probably also fortified cities. Joel F. Drinkard, Jr.

Were six in number (Numbers 35 ). 1 . On the west of Jordan were (1) Kadesh, in Naphtali; (2) Shechem, in Mount Ephraim; (3) Hebron, in Judah. 2. On the east of Jordan were, (1) Golan, in Bashan; (2) Ramoth-Gilead, in Gad; and (3) Bezer, in Reuben. (See under each of these names.)

See Cities of Refuge .

The kings of Judah had keepers of their treasures both in city and country (1 Chronicles 27:25 ) and the places where these magazines were laid up were called treasure-cities. and the buildings treasure-houses. Pharaoh compelled the Hebrews to build him treasure-cities. (Exodus 1:11 ) --McClintock and Strong. ^[1]

(See BLOOD, AVENGING OF.) Kedesh ("holy," so Jesus our city of refuge, Hebrews 6:18; Hebrews 7:26), now Kedes, 20 miles E.S.E. from Tyre. Shechem ("shoulder," upon Jesus' shoulder the government is, Isaiah 9:6), now Nablous. Hebron ("fellowship," so Christ to us, 1 Corinthians 1:9), now El-Khalil. Bezer, perhaps Bozor in the Book of Maccabees ("fortress," so is Jesus, Isaiah 32:2; Isaiah 26:1; Isaiah 26:4). Ramoth Gilead, on the site of Ez-Szalt (Ramoth ("high"), so is Jesus to us, Acts 5:31). Golan, Jaulan ("joy"; Jesus is our joy, Romans 5:11). All the 48 cities of Levi had the right of asylum. But the six of refuge were bound to entertain the involuntary manslayer gratuitously. The cities on each side of the Jordan were nearly opposite one another (Deuteronomy 19:2; Numbers 35:6; Numbers 35:13; Numbers 35:15; Joshua 20:2; Joshua 20:7; Joshua 20:9). If manslayers had been driven out of the country as among the Greeks, they would have been exposed to the temptation of worshipping strange gods (1 Samuel 26:19). The Levitical cities were to have a space of 1,000 cubits (583 yards) beyond the city walls for pasture and other purposes (Numbers 35:4-5). The 2,000 cubits also specified mean probably the sum of the two single thousands on opposite sides of the city, exclusive of the city itself; as here shown. Clermont-Ganneau has discovered a bilingual inscription, Greek and Hebrew, "limit of Gezer" (now Tel-el-Jezer), on a horizontal slab E. of that royal Canaanite city; also a second similarly inscribed stone 1,696 yards due N.W. of the first. This proves that the sacred boundary was a square, having its four angles at the four cardinal points (Palestine Exploration Quarterly Statement, Oct. 1874).

(leh viht' ih cuhl) Residence and pasture lands provided the priestly tribe of Levi in lieu of a tribal inheritance. Because of their priestly duties, the tribe of Levi did not receive any part of the land of Canaan as an inheritance (Numbers 18:20-24 ; Numbers 26:62 ; Deuteronomy 10:9 ; Deuteronomy 18:1-2 ; Joshua 18:7 ). To compensate them for this, they received the tithes of Israelites for their support (Numbers 18:21 ), and 48 cities were allotted to them from the inheritance of the other tribes. On the average, four cities from each tribe were Levitical cities. The practice of setting cities aside in this manner was a common Ancient Near Eastern practice. The Levites were not the sole possessors or occupiers of these cities. They were simply allowed to live in them and have fields to pasture their herds. These cities did not cease to belong to the tribes within which they were located. Although six of the 48 were asylums for those guilty of manslaughter (Kedesh, Schechem, Hebron in Canaan, Bezer, Ramoth-Gilead, and Golan), Levitical cities and cities of refuge are not synonymous. See Cities of Refuge . The privilege of asylum was not extended to all 48 Levitical cities. The aim of having cities of refuge was to control blood revenge by making it possible for public justice to intervene between the slayer and the victim's avenger of blood. The cities of refuge were probably priestly cities containing important shrines. Cities of refuge also served as punitive detention centers. The slayer was not permitted to leave until the death of the high priest. This was possibly interpreted as a vicarious expiation of life by life. Levitical cities were a series of walled cities, apart from the lands surrounding them. Unwalled suburbs and fields outside the cities remained tribal property. The Levites could not sell any open plots of land. The legal status of Levitical houses within these cities differed from ordinary property. To prevent the dispossession of Levites, it was ordained that they might at any time redeem houses in their own cities which they had been forced by need to sell. Moreover, such a house, if not redeemed, reverted to its original Levitical owner during the year of Jubilee. See Jubilee, Year of). Pastureland belonging to Levites could not be sold (Leviticus 25:32-34 ). Theological, political, and economic reasons led to establishing the cities. The cities formed bases of operation so that the Levites could better infiltrate each of the tribes to instruct them in God's covenant. Such bases would be most needed precisely where one finds them: in those areas least accessible to the central sanctuary. Obviously, there was also a political dimension. Certainly, the Levitical desire to secure Israel's loyalty to the Lord of the covenant would also imply a commitment to secure loyalty to the Lord's anointed, the king. There was a blending of covenant teaching and political involvement. The economic factor may have been the most significant. The list of cities describes the dispersion of the Levites who were not employed at the large sanctuaries, had no steady income, and who belonged, therefore, in the category of widows and orphans. The cities were established for men needing economic relief. Gary D. Baldwin

CITIES OF THE PLAIN . See Plain ^[1].

LEVITICAL CITIES. See Priests and Levites, § d.

The cities located on the Anatolian peninsula (modern-day Turkey). Cities of Asia Minor important to the New Testament accounts included Alexandria Troas, Assos, Ephesus, Miletus, Patara, Smyrna, Pergamum, Sardis, Thyatira, Philadelphia, Laodicea, Colassae, Attalia, Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe, and Tarsus. The cities figured prominently in the Apostle Paul's missionary journeys, several of the churches receiving epistles. Among the list are the “Seven Cities” of the Revelation. Geography and History The geography of Asia Minor greatly influenced the development of settlements in the area. The region can be described as the point where “East meets West,” linking the continent of Europe with the Near East. The peninsula is a high plateau surrounded by steep mountain ranges. The mountains isolate Asia Minor from much of the outside world. Narrow passes through the mountains connect the interior with the Near East. Deep ravines cut by numerous and often navigable rivers linked the cities of the plateau with the western coastline. Cities developed in locales vital to trade and commerce, such as near the mouths of rivers and mountain passes. The history of Asia Minor reflects the region's unstable position between the east and west. The Hittite Empire thrived in the eastern portion of the peninsula during after 2000 B.C. Exposed on the west to the Aegean Sea, the coastal area became the home to numerous Greek colonies beginning about 1200 B.C. Centered in Sardis, the Lydian Empire began to expand about 600 B.C., but was soon conquered by the Persians. Control passed to Alexander the Great about 333 B.C. Upon his death Asia Minor fell under the rule of the Seluccids. Beginning about 200 B.C. Roman control of the peninsula increased until all of Anatolia was absorbed into the Roman provincial system. At this time, “Asia” designated the provinces of only western Anatolia. Galatia, Cappadocia, and Cilicia comprised the eastern provinces, while Bitnia and Pontus bordered the Black Sea to the north. The Anatolian peninsula was probably first termed “Asia Minor” after A.D. 400. Coastal Cities The name Troas described both the northwest region of Asia Minor as well as the port city. Located ten miles south of the site of ancient Troy, Alexandria Troas was founded as a Roman colony during the period of Augustus (27 B.C.-A.D. 14) and served as a primary port for trade passing between Asia Minor and Macedonia. Remains of the ruined city wall and a bath complex built after A.D. 100 are still visible. As with many ancient ports, the once busy harbor silted up and became unusable. Paul once set sail from Troas to Greece in response to his vision of the “Macedonian Man” ( Acts 16:11 ). On his third journey, Paul's companions embarked on a ship sailing toward the port of Assos , twenty miles south (Acts 20:13 ). A bustling port city surrounded by a wall dating to after 400 B.C., Assos featured a temple of Athena high on the acropolis overlooking the harbor. At Assos, Paul joined the ship carrying Luke and several others after journeying on foot from Troas. Ephesus served as the primary trading center of all Asia Minor. The large port facility provided ample anchorage for ships carrying goods east from Greece and Italy, as well as for those which took to Rome the wares brought overland from Asia and the Far East. A well-laid road linked the post facilities at Ephesus with Tarsus to the east. The road approached the city from the southeast, entering a monumental gateway near the public baths. Remains of the city's immense theater, capable of seating 24,00 spectators, stand today as a reminder of the great crowd which in protest to Paul filled the seats and for several hours shouted, “Great is Diana of the Ephesians!” ( Acts 19:34 ). The city's temple honoring Diana was one of the Seven Wonders of the world. Known as the Artemision to the Greeks, the temple possessed 127 pillars 60 feet high which held up the roof of the largest all-marble structure in the Hellenistic world. The city's harbor, built around the outlet of the Cayster River, gradually filled with silt; and the site now lies some six miles away from the sea. As the chief port and city of Asia, Paul's choice of Ephesus as a center of ministry provided the perfect base from which the Gospel could be spread throughout the Roman world. During the early period of Greek colonization, Miletus exercised extensive control over southwestern Anatolia. As a major sea-power, the city remained independent throughout the time of Lydian rule in the region. The city was able to withstand attempted incursions by the Persians until 494 B.C. Once a wealthy port for the wool industry, Miletus was a city of little significance during the New Testament era ( Acts 20:15 ). Acts 21:1 recounts how Paul sailed for Tyre from Patara. The city served as a popular port for ships traveling eastward during the early autumn months when favorable winds made travel to Egypt and the Phoenician coast easier. The harbor sat near the outlet of the Xanthus River and was the main shipping facility of provincial Lydia. Smyrna surrounded a well-protected harbor on the Aegean coast at the outlet of the Hermus River. Extensive trade into and out of Asia passed through the city. During the first century A.D. Smyrna reigned as one of the grandest cities of all Asia. A large temple dedicated to the Emperor Tiberius boasted the close alliance of the city with the Empire. Numerous other temples dedicated to a wide-range of Roman deities as well as scores of beautifully-adorned public buildings decorated the city. Cities of the Interior Located fifteen miles inland overlooking the Caicus River, Pergamum contained the first temple in Asia dedicated to a Roman Emperor, Augustus, in 29 B.C. The city possessed a commanding position on a hill high above the valley. Located on the Upper Acropolis were a large theater, library, agora, palace, barracks, and altar of Zeus. The large altar area may be that referred to by John as the “throne of Satan” ( Revelation 2:13 ). The city was well-known as a center of worship for the gods Asklepios, Zeus, Demeter and Persephone, Serapis, Isis, as well as the cult of the emperor. The greatest city in Lydia, Sardis is remembered as the first municipality to mint coins of silver and gold. Set in the fertile Hermus valley, Sardis served as the capital of the Lydian king Croesus, a name synonymous with wealth. The city fell to the Persian armies of Cyrus in 549 B.C. and to the Romans in 188 B.C. A tremendous earthquake in A.D. 17 struck Sardis, a blow from which it never fully recovered. Following the Hermus River inland from Sardis, one reached Philadelphia , the name commemorating the brotherly love between Attalus Philadelphus and Eumenes. Founded after 200 B.C., the city was set amidst vast vineyards and led in the worship of Dionysius. The terrible earthquake of A.D. 17 was followed by dangerous tremors for the next twenty years, each one debilitating the city further. The Apostle John's reference to the giving of a “new name” (Revelation 3:12 ) may be a word-play on the proposed dedication of the city as “Neocaesarea” in honor of aid sent by Tiberius. Despite the gains by Islam in Asia Minor in later years, Philadelphia maintained a continued Christian witness across the centuries. Journeying inland from Miletus, a traveler followed the course of the Meander River until it joined the Lycus. In the center of the valley sat Laodicea . Situated along the major east-west trade route, the city prospered greatly. As the chief city of the wealthy province of Phrygia, Laodicea boasted of a large number of banks. In 51 B.C. Cicero recounted how he stopped to cash drafts at one of the city's banks. The great wealth of Laodicea allowed it to finance its own rebuilding after a destructive earthquake in A.D. 60, refusing help from the Senate of Rome. The city was also known for clothes and carpets woven from the rich, glossy black wool raised in the valley. Laodicea served as home to a medical school renowned for production of collyrium, an eye salve. Revelation makes mention of the riches of the city, admonishing believers to seek instead spiritual gold of eternal worth, and to anoint their eyes with a spiritual salve. John's description of “white garments” to cover their nakedness contrasts the Laodicean preference for “home-grown” black wool, a symbol of worldly prosperity (Revelation 3:14-18 ). Eleven miles south of Laodicea lay Colossae. The city was well-known as early as about 450 B.C. as a commercial center, famous for red-dyed wool. The establishment of Laodicea, however, led to the decline of Colassae's prosperity. Several remains are still visible, including a small theater on the ciyt's southeast side. The Apostle Paul never personally evangelized the city. Instead, the church was established by Epaphras during Paul's third missionary journey (Colossians 1:7 ; Colossians 4:12-13 ). Paul wrote to the church during his Roman imprisonment, complementing the work of Philemon's servant Onesimus (Colossians 4:9 ). A church built in the city during the Byzantine era was ultimately destroyed by Seljuk Turks in A.D. 1070, and the city abandoned. Cities of Eastern Asia Minor Much of Paul's Asian ministry centered around the provinces of Galatia and Lycaonia. On his first journey, Paul and Barnabas most likely arrived by sea at Attalia , a relatively small and unimportant harbor. Moving northward from the port and crossing Pamplia, the group arrived at Antioch in the province of Galatia (Acts 13:14 ). Luke's “Antioch of Pisidia ” carried the title of Colonia Caesarea Antiocheia , a colony established in 25 B.C. upon a much earlier Hellenistic city. Antioch had been renovated by Rome to provide for the defense of Galatia. A temple to Augustus dominated the central plaza, and the official inscription telling of his victories and of achievements was displayed in the city. Wagons bearing Anatolian marble passed through Antioch on their way to ships at Ephesus to be used in the decoration of the empire. Moving southeast from Antioch, Paul and his companions traveled to Iconium ( Acts 13:51 ). Located in a fertile, well-watered plain, Iconium supplied large amounts of fruit and grain for the surrounding provinces. Several years after Paul's visit, the Emperor Claudius allowed the town to be renamed Claudiconium in his honor, a reminder of the strong ties it shared with Rome. Lystra lay twenty miles to the south of Iconium along the Via Sebaste. The title of Julia Felix Gemina Lustra was conferred upon this colony of Rome around 6 B.C. by Augustus. Connected by a fine road with Antioch to the west, the city honored Zeus and Hermes as patron gods. A statue dedicated to the two was discovered in the 1800's, reminiscent of the city's identification of Paul and Barnabas with the gods ( Acts 14:1 ). Timothy was a native of Lystra. The ruins of the city are today near the small Turkish town of Katyn Serai. Derbe was situated 60 miles from Lystra at the present-day site of Kerti Huyuk. Although a large city of Lyconia, Derbe was relatively unimportant. Paul's decision to visit the city infers a large Jewish population in the region. It is possible that some believers had already advanced the Gospel to Derbe, having been earlier expelled from Iconium. The boyhood home of the Apostle Paul, Tarsus of Cilicia lay on the eastern end of the east-west trade route beginning at Ephesus. At Tarsus, merchants had the option of going south into Syria and Palestine, or continuing across the mountains on to Zeugma and the East. The Cydnus River provided Tarsus with an outlet to the Mediterranean Sea, ten miles away. Lumber and linen were the main industries of Tarsus, but the related manufacture of goat's-hair cloth was practiced by many, including Paul. This skill served as his main source of income wherever he traveled. Tarsus also housed a university and school of philosophy, an academic atmosphere which formed the basis of Paul's latter rabbinic career. David C. Maltsberger

See REFUGE.

The distinction between a "city" and a "village" in the Bible is, the former had walls. The village had sometimes a watchman's tower, where the villagers repaired when in danger. Such towers Uzziah built in the desert for the protection of husbandmen and cattle from marauding tribes (2 Chronicles 26:10). David too had "castles" (1 Chronicles 27:25). Argob in Bashan, Og's kingdom, E. of Jordan, had "three-score cities fenced with high walls, gates and bars, beside unwalled towns a great many" (Deuteronomy 3:4-5); all which Israel took. (See ARGOB.) Villages in the Hauran sometimes consist of houses joined together and the entrance closed by a gate for security against Arab marauders. "Build" often means "fortify" (2 Chronicles 11:5-10; 2 Chronicles 16:6; 1 Kings 15:17). The defenses consisted of one or more walls with battlemented parapets and towers at intervals (2 Chronicles 32:5; Jeremiah 31:38), whereon were war engines, also a citadel or tower, the last resource of the defenders (Judges 9:46; Judges 9:51; 2 Kings 9:17; 2 Chronicles 26:9; 2 Chronicles 26:15). Ninety towers crowned the oldest of Jerusalem's three walls, fourteen the second, sixty the third (B. J., 5:4, section 2). The tower of Hananeel is mentioned Jeremiah 31:38; Zechariah 14:10; Nehemiah 3:1, where also is mentioned "the tower of Meah," "the tower of the furnaces" (Nehemiah 3:11), "the great tower that lieth out even unto the wall of Ophel" (Nehemiah 3:27). An out-work is meant by the "ditch" or "trench," possibly a wall lining the ditch (1 Kings 21:23; 2 Samuel 20:15). "The castle" of Antonia was the citadel of Jerusalem in our Lord's time; it served also to overawe the town, the Roman soldiers occupying it (Acts 21:34). Canaan's "cities fenced up to heaven" were leading causes of the spies' and Israel's unbelieving panic (Numbers 13:28; Deuteronomy 1:28; Deuteronomy 9:1-2). These the Israelites "rebuilt," i.e. refortified (Numbers 32:17; Numbers 32:34-42). So fenced was "the stronghold of Zion" that it remained in the Jebusites' hands until David's time (2 Samuel 5:6-7). Samaria yielded to the mighty hosts of Assyria only after a three years' siege (2 Kings 17:5; 2 Kings 18:10).

(pl.) of City

Six cities that were designated by Moses at the command of God as locations to which Israelites could flee in order to be safe from retribution of other Israelites for offenses committed against others. Numbers 35:9-16 gives a description of their purpose. In that culture the responsibility of retribution against a family member who had been killed or seriously injured rested on the "goel," the next of kin. The person was required to stay in the city until the death of the High Priest of that city (Numbers 35:25-28). Then he was free to return to his home and retribution was not allowed upon him. Note they typology here. When the high priest dies, the offender is set free. In other words, when Jesus our High Priest died on the cross, we sinners were set free from sin.

See Refuge

By referring to some peculiarities in the building, fortifying, &c, of eastern cities, we shall the better understand several allusions and expressions of the Old Testament. It is evident that the walls of fortified cities were sometimes partly constructed of combustible materials; for the Prophet, denouncing the judgments of God upon Syria and other countries, declares, "I will send a fire on the wall of Gaza, which shall devour the palaces thereof," Amos 1:7 . The walls of Tyre and Rabbah seem to have been of the same perishable materials; for the Prophet adds, "I will send a fire upon the wall of Tyrus, which shall devour the palaces thereof;" and again, "I will kindle a fire in the walls of Rabbah, and it shall devour the palaces thereof with shouting in the day of battle," Amos 1:10 ; Amos 1:14 . One method of securing the gates of fortified places, among the ancients, was to cover them with thick plates of iron; a custom which is still used in the east, and seems to be of great antiquity. We learn from Pitts, that Algiers has five gates, and some of these have two, some three, other gates within them; and some of them are plated all over with thick iron. The place where the Apostle was imprisoned seems to have been secured in the same manner; for, says the inspired historian, "When they were past the first and second ward, they came unto the iron gate that leadeth unto the city; which opened to them of its own accord," Acts 12:10 . Pococke, speaking of a bridge not far from Antioch, called the iron bridge, says, there are two towers belonging to it, the gates of which are covered with iron plates; which he supposes is the reason of the name it bears. Some of their gates are plated over with brass; such are the enormous gates of the principal mosque at Damascus, formerly the church of John the Baptist. To gates like these, the Psalmist probably refers in these words: "He hath broken the gates of brass," Psalms 107:16 ; and the Prophet, in that remarkable passage, where God promises to go before Cyrus his anointed, and "break in pieces the gates of brass, and cut in sunder the bars iron," Isaiah 45:2 . But, conscious that all these precautions were insufficient for their security, the orientals employed watchmen to patrol the city during the night, to suppress any disorders in the streets, or to guard the wall against the attempts of a foreign enemy. To this custom Solomon refers in these words: "The watchmen that went about the city found me, they smote me, they wounded me; the keepers of the wall took away my veil from me," Song of Solomon 5:7 . This custom may be traced to a very remote antiquity; so early as the departure of Israel from the land of Egypt, the morning watch is mentioned, certainly indicating the time when the watchmen were commonly relieved. In Persia, the watchmen were obliged to indemnify those who were robbed in the streets; which accounts for the vigilance and severity which they display in the discharge of their office, and illustrates the character of watchman given to Ezekiel, and the duties he was required to perform. If the wicked perished in his iniquities without warning, the Prophet was to be accountable for his blood; but if he duly pointed out his danger, he delivered his own soul, Ezekiel 33:2 . They were also charged, as with us, to announce the progress of the night to the slumbering city: "The burden of Dumah; he calls to me out of Seir, Watchman, what of the night? watchman, what of the night? The watchman said, The morning cometh, and also the night," Isaiah 21:11 . This is confirmed by an observation of Chardin upon these words of Moses: "For a thousand years in thy sight are but as yesterday when it is past, and as a watch in the night:" that as the people of the east have no clocks, the several parts of the day and of the night, which are eight in all, are announced. In the Indies, the parts of the night are made known, as well by instruments of music, in great cities, as by the rounds of the watchmen, who, with cries and small drums, give them notice that a fourth part of the night is past. Now, as these cries awaked those who had slept all that quarter part of the night, it appeared to them but as a moment. It is evident the ancient Jews knew, by some public notice, how the night watches passed away; but, whether they simply announced the termination of the watch, or made use of trumpets, or other sonorous instruments, in making the proclamation, it may not be easy to determine; and still less what kind of chronometers the watchmen used. The probability is, that the watches were announced with the sound of a trumpet; for the Prophet Ezekiel makes it a part of the watchman's duty, at least in time of war, to blow the trumpet, and warn the people. The watchman, in a time of danger, seems to have taken his station in a tower, which was built over the gate of the city. The fortified cities in Canaan, as in some other countries, were commonly strengthened with a citadel, to which the inhabitants fled when they found it impossible to defend the place. The whole inhabitants of Thebez, unable to resist the repeated and furious assaults of Abimelech, retired into one of these towers, and bid defiance to his rage: "But there was a strong tower within the city, and thither fled all the men and women, and all they of the city, and shut it to them, and gat them up to the top of the tower." The extraordinary strength of this tower, and the various means of defence which were accumulated within its narrow walls, may be inferred from the violence of Abimelech's attack, and its fatal issue. "And Abimelech came unto the tower, and fought against it, and went hard unto the door of the tower, to burn it with fire. And a certain woman cast a piece of a millstone upon Abimelech's head, and all to break his skull," Judges 9:52 . The city of Shechem had a tower of the same kind, into which the people retired, when the same usurper took it and sowed it with salt, Judges 9:46 . These strong towers which were built within a fortified city, were commonly placed on an eminence, to which they ascended by a flight of steps. Such was the situation of the city of David, a strong tower upon a high eminence at Jerusalem; and the manner of entrance, as described by the sacred writer: "But the gate of the fountain repaired Shallum, unto the stairs that go down from the city of David," Nehemiah 3:15 .

See REFUGE .

Cities of Refuge. Were six Levitical cities specially chosen for refuge to the involuntary homicide until released from banishment by the death of the high priest. Numbers 35:6; Numbers 35:13; Numbers 35:15; Joshua 20:2; Joshua 20:7; Joshua 20:9. There were three on each side of Jordan. 1. Kedesh, in Galilee, 1 Chronicles 6:76. 2. Shechem, in Ephraim, Joshua 21:21; 1 Chronicles 6:67; 2 Chronicles 10:1. 3. Hebron, in Judah, Joshua 21:13; 2 Samuel 5:5; 1 Chronicles 6:55; 1 Chronicles 29:27; 2 Chronicles 11:10. 4. On the east side of Jordan—Bezer, in the tribe of Reuben, in the plains of Moab, Deuteronomy 4:43; Joshua 20:8; Joshua 21:36. 5. Ramoth-gilead, in the tribe of Gad, Deuteronomy 4:43; Joshua 21:38; 1 Kings 22:3. 6. Golan, in Bashan, in the half-tribe of Manasseh, Deuteronomy 4:43; Joshua 21:27; 1 Chronicles 6:71.

Cities. The distinction of villages from towns, and of towns from cities is not very clearly marked in Scripture. The earliest notice of city building is of Enoch by Cain, in the land of his exile. Genesis 4:17. After the confusion of tongues the descendants of Nimrod founded Babel, Erech, Accad and Calneh, in the land of Shinar, and Asshur, a branch from the same stock, built Nineveh, Rehoboth-by-the-river, Calah and Resen, the last being "a great city." The earliest description of a city, properly so called, is that of Sodom. Genesis 19:1-22. Even before the time of Abraham there were cities in Egypt, Genesis 12:14-15; Numbers 13:22, and the Israelites, during their sojourn there, were employed in building or fortifying the "treasure cities" of Pithom and Raamses. Exodus 1:11. Fenced cities, fortified with high walls, Deuteronomy 3:5, were occupied and perhaps partly rebuilt after the conquest, by the settled inhabitants of Syria on both sides of the Jordan.

To provide security for those who should undesignedly kill a man, the Lord commanded Moses to appoint six cities of refuge, or asylums, that any one who should thus shed blood might retire thither, and have time to prepare his defence before the judges, and that the kinsmen of the deceased might not pursue and kill him, Exodus 21:13 Numbers 35:11-34 . Of such cities there were three on each side Jordan. On the west were Kedesh of Naphtali, Shechem, and Hebron; on the east, Golan, Ramoth-Gilead, and Bezer, Joshua 20:7,8 . These cities served not only for Hebrews, but for all strangers who resided in the country, Deuteronomy 19:1-10 . The Lord also commanded that when the Hebrews should multiply and enlarge their land, they should add three other cities of refuge. But this command was never fulfilled. The custom of blood-revenge appears to have been an institution or principle very early introduced among the nomadic oriental tribes. So firmly was this practice established among the Israelites before their entrance into the promised land, and probably also even before their sojourning in Egypt, that Moses was directed by Jehovah not to attempt to eradicate it entirely, but only to counteract and modify it by the institution of cities of refuge. The custom of avenging the blood of a member of a family or tribe upon some member of the tribe or family of the slayer, still exists in full force among the modern Bedaweens, the representatives in a certain sense of the ancient Israelites in the desert. They prefer this mode of self-vengeance. Niebuhr informs us that "the Arabs rather avenge themselves, as the law allows, upon the family of the murderer; and seek an opportunity of slaying its head, or most considerable person, whom they regard as being properly the person guilty of the crime, as it must have been committed through his negligence in watching over the conduct of those under his inspection. From this time the two families are in continual fears, till some one or other of the murderer's family be slain. No reconciliation can take place between them, and the quarrel is still occasionally renewed. There have been instances of such family feuds lasting forty years. If in the contest a man of the murdered person's family happens to fall, there can be no peace until two others of the murderer's family have been slain." How far superior to this was the Mosaic institution of cities of refuge, where the involuntary homicide might remain in peace till the death of the high-priest, and then go forth in safety, while a really guilty person did not escape punishment. Among most of the nations of antiquity, temples, and particularly the altars within them, were regarded as proffering an asylum for fugitives from violence. Among the Hebrews we find indications of the custom on the part of the culprit of fleeing to the Lord's altar. But this was not allowed to screen the guilty from deserved punishment, Exodus 21:14 1 Kings 2:28-34 . There is an appointed city of refuge for sinners exposed to the second death, and an altar of refuge sprinkled with atoning blood. Happy the soul that flees and is safe in Christ, ere it is overtaken by the avenging law of God.

Towns which, according to Jewish law, enjoyed the right of asylum, and to which anyone who had unintentionally killed another might flee and be protected from the "avenger of blood." In order to justify his claim to immunity the fugitive had to prove to the authorities that his deed was unpremeditated, and he became virtually a prisoner within the limits of the city to which he fled. The biblical cities of refuge were Cedes, Sichem, Hebron, Bosor, Ramoth in Galaad, and Gaulon in Basan (Josue 20).

^[1] CITIES OF REFUGE - 1019

i.e. cities fortified or defended. The fortifications of the cities of Palestine, thus regularly "fenced," consisted of one or more walls (sometimes of thick stones, sometimes of combustible material), crowned with battlemented parapets, having towers at regular intervals, (2 Chronicles 32:5 ; Jeremiah 31:38 ) on which in later times engines of war were placed, and watch was kept by day and night in time of war. (Judges 9:45 ; 2 Kings 9:17 ; 2 Chronicles 26:9,15 )

six Levitical cities specially chosen for refuge to the involuntary homicide until released from banishment by the death of the high priest. (Numbers 35:6,13,15 ; Joshua 20:2,7,9 ) There were three on each side of Jordan. KEDESH , in Naphtali. (1 Chronicles 6:76 ) SHECHEM , in Mount Ephraim. (Joshua 21:21 ; 1 Chronicles 6:67 ; 2 Chronicles 10:1 ) HEBRON , in Judah. (Joshua 21:13 ; 2 Samuel 5:5 ; 1 Chronicles 6:55 ; 29:27 ; 2 Chronicles 11:10 ) On the east side of Jordan - BEZER , in the tribe of Reuben, in the plains of Moab. (4:43; Joshua 20:8 ; 21:36 ) 1 Maccabees 5:26 . RAMOTH-GILEAD, in the tribe of Gad. (4:43; Joshua 21:38 ; 1 Kings 22:3 ) GOLAN , in Bashan, in the half-tribe of Manasseh. (4:43; Joshua 21:27 ; 1 Chronicles 6:71 )

The earliest notice in Scripture of city-building is of Enoch by Cain, in the land of his exile. (Genesis 4:17 ) After the confusion of tongues the descendants of Nimrod founded Babel, Erech, Accad and Calneh, in the land of Shinar, and Asshur, a branch from the same stock, built Nineveh, Rehoboth-by-the-river, Calah and Resen, the last being "a great city." The earliest description of a city, properly so called, is that of Sodom, (Genesis 19:1-22 ) Even before the time of Abraham there were cities in Egypt, (Genesis 12:14,15 ; Numbers 13:22 ) and the Israelites, during their sojourn there, were employed in building or fortifying the "treasure cities" of Pithom and Raamses. (Exodus 1:11 ) Fenced cities , fortified with high walls, (3:5) were occupied and perhaps partly rebuilt after the conquest, by the settled inhabitants of Syria on both sides of the Jordan.