The Meaning of Matthew 28:18 Explained

Matthew 28:18

KJV: And Jesus came and spake unto them, saying, All power is given unto me in heaven and in earth.

YLT: And having come near, Jesus spake to them, saying, 'Given to me was all authority in heaven and on earth;

Darby: And Jesus coming up spoke to them, saying, All power has been given me in heaven and upon earth.

ASV: And Jesus came to them and spake unto them, saying, All authority hath been given unto me in heaven and on earth.

KJV Reverse Interlinear

And  Jesus  came  and spake  unto them,  saying,  All  power  is given  unto me  in  heaven  and  in  earth. 

What does Matthew 28:18 Mean?

Verse Meaning

Jesus proceeded to address the Eleven. Matthew did not record them saying anything, which focuses our attention fully on Jesus" words. Notice the repetition of "all" in Matthew 28:18-20 : all authority, all nations, all things, and all the days. Matthew stressed the authority of Jesus throughout his Gospel ( Matthew 7:29; Matthew 10:1; Matthew 10:7-8; Matthew 11:27; Matthew 22:43-44; Matthew 24:35).
"Not merely power or might (dunamis), such as a great conqueror might claim, but "authority" (exousia), as something which is His by right, conferred upon Him by One who has the right to bestow it (Rev. ii27)." [1]
God restricted Jesus" authority before His resurrection because of His role as the Suffering Servant. Following His resurrection God broadened the sphere in which Jesus exercised authority (cf. Matthew 4:8-10). He became the One through whom God now mediates all authority (cf. Daniel 7:14; Philippians 2:5-11). This was Jesus" great claim.
"By raising Jesus from the dead and investing him with all authority, God vindicates Jesus and thus decides the conflict in his favor ( Matthew 28:5-6; Matthew 28:18)." [2]

Context Summary

Matthew 28:11-20 - The Great Commission, Of The Risen Lord
What absurdity in this mendacious explanation! How could the soldiers know who stole the body, if they were asleep? Skeptics have to believe greater marvels than believers. Was it likely that Christ's friends would have wished to unwind the clothes that covered that sacred body? Would His enemies have taken the time, or forfeited the rich shroud that Joseph's love provided? Men will believe any lie rather than God's truth, because their hearts are evil.
This mountain at the conclusion of our Lord's life corresponds to the mountain of temptation at the beginning. There He was offered the empire of the world, if only He would take the easy lower path; here He is acknowledged King of the world, because He took the harder one of obedience unto death. This glorious charge to His Church has the ring of universality. It combines the herald and the shepherd, and assures each humble disciple that the day will never dawn, however stormy, on which his Lord will not be near.
For Review Questions, see the e-Sword Book Comments [source]

Chapter Summary: Matthew 28

1  Christ's resurrection is declared by an angel to the women
9  He himself appears unto them
11  The chief priests pay the soldiers to say that he was stolen out of his tomb
16  Christ appears to his disciples,
18  and sends them to baptize and teach all nations

Greek Commentary for Matthew 28:18

All authority [πασα εχουσια]
Jesus came close to them Now it is boundless and includes earth and heaven. [source]
Hath been given [εδοτη]
It is the sublimist of all spectacles to see the Risen Christ without money or army or state charging this band of five hundred men and women with world conquest and bringing them to believe it possible and to undertake it with serious passion and power. Pentecost is still to come, but dynamic faith rules on this mountain in Galilee. [source]
Came to []
Matthew 28:17 evidently describes the impression made by seeing him at a distance. Possibly from feelings of modesty they had not ventured close to him. Jesus now approaches and addresses them. [source]
Spake - saying [ἐλάλησεν - λέγων]
Two different words are here used to express speech, with a nice distinction which can hardly be conveyed without paraphrase. The verb λαλεῖν is used of speaking, in contrast with or as a breaking of silence, voluntary or imposed. Thus the dumb man; after he was healed, spake ( ἐλάλησεν ); and Zacharias, when his tongue was loosed, began to speak ( ἐλάλει ). In the use of the word the writer contemplates the fact rather than the substance of speech. Hence it is used of God (Hebrews 1:1), the point being, not what God said, but the fact that he spake to men. On the contrary, λέγειν , refers to the matter of speech. The verb originally means to pick out, and hence to use words selected as appropriate expressions of thought, and to put such words together in orderly discourse. Here, then, we have Jesus first breaking silence ( ελάλησεν ), and then discoursing ( λέγων )Power ( ἐξουσία )Better, authority, as Rev. [source]
Is given [ἐδόθη]
Lit.,was given, by the divine decree. [source]
Two different words are here used to express speech, with a nice distinction which can hardly be conveyed without paraphrase. The verb λαλεῖν is used of speaking, in contrast with or as a breaking of silence, voluntary or imposed. Thus the dumb man; after he was healed, spake [ἐξουσία]
Better, authority, as Rev. [source]

Reverse Greek Commentary Search for Matthew 28:18

Matthew 11:27 Are delivered [παρεδόθη]
More lit., were delivered, as of a single act at a given time, as in this case, where the Son was sent forth by the Father, and clothed with authority. Compare Matthew 28:18. [source]
Matthew 11:27 All things have been delivered unto me of my Father [παντα μοι παρεδοτη υπο του πατρος μου]
This sublime claim is not to be whittled down or away by explanations. It is the timeless aorist like εδοτη — edothē in Matthew 28:18 (see note) and “points back to a moment in eternity, and implies the pre-existence of the Messiah” (Plummer). The Messianic consciousness of Christ is here as clear as a bell. It is a moment of high fellowship. Note επιγινωσκει — epiginōskei twice for “fully know.” Note also βουληται — boulētai = wills, is willing. The Son retains the power and the will to reveal the Father to men. [source]
Mark 7:37 To speak [λαλεῖν]
See on Matthew 28:18. The emphasis is not on the matter, but on the fact of speech. [source]
John 8:26 I speak to the world [λέγω εἰς τὸν κοσμὸν]
The best texts read λαλῶ , which emphasizes not what Christ says (which would be λέγω ), but the fact that He speaks. See on Matthew 28:18. The use of the preposition εἰς here is peculiar. Literally, “I speak into the world;” so that my words may reach and spread through the world. See for a similar construction 1 Thessalonians 2:9; 1 Thessalonians 4:8; Hebrews 2:3. So Sophocles, where Electra says, κήρυσσέ μ ' εἰς ἅπαντας proclaimme to all: so that the report of me may reach all ears (“Electra,” 606). [source]
John 3:31 Speaketh of the earth []
Out of the earth. His words have an earthly source. On λαλεΐ́ , speaketh, see on Matthew 28:18. [source]
John 13:3 Knowing [ειδως]
Repeated from John 13:1, accenting the full consciousness of Jesus. Had given So Aleph B L W, aorist active instead of δεδωκεν — dedōken (perfect active) of διδωμι — didōmi Cf. John 3:31 for a similar statement with εν — en instead of εις — eis See Matthew 11:27 (Luke 10:22) and Matthew 28:18 for like claim by Jesus to complete power. And that he came forth from God, and goeth unto God See plain statement by Jesus on this point in John 16:28. The use of προς τον τεον — pros ton theon recalls the same words in John 1:1. Jesus is fully conscious of his deity and Messianic dignity when he performs this humble act. [source]
John 3:35 Hath given all things into his hand [παντα δεδωκεν εν τηι χειρι αυτου]
John makes the same statement about Jesus in John 13:3 (using εις τας χειρας — eis tas cheiras instead of εν τηι χειρι — en tēi cheiri). Jesus makes the same claim in John 5:19-30; Matthew 11:27; Matthew 28:18. [source]
John 17:2 Authority over all flesh [εχουσιαν πασης σαρκος]
Σαρκος — Sarkos is objective genitive. Stupendous claim impossible for a mere man to make. Made already in Matthew 11:27; Luke 10:22 (Q, the Logia of Jesus, our earliest known document about Jesus) and repeated in Matthew 28:18 after his resurrection. That Secondary purpose with ινα δωσει — hina dōsei (future active indicative) carrying on the idea of ινα δοχασηι — hina doxasēi See John 13:34; John 17:21 for ινα κατωσ ινα — hina class="normal greek">παν ο — kathōs class="normal greek">παν ο — hina Whatsoever (ο — pān ho). A peculiar classical Greek idiom, the collective use of the singular αυτοις — pān ho as in John 6:37, John 6:39 and ho in John 17:24 and the nominative absolute (nom. pendens) with autois (to them), the dative plural explaining the construction. See Robertson, Grammar, p. 653. [source]
Romans 3:19 Saith - speaketh [λέγει - λαλεῖ]
See on Matthew 28:18. The former contemplates the substance, the latter the expression of the law. [source]
Philippians 1:14 To speak [λαλεῖν]
The verb denotes the fact rather than the substance of speaking. See on Matthew 28:18. They have broken silence. [source]
1 Timothy 3:16 Was received up into glory [ἀνελήμφθη ἐν δόξῃ]
Better, received or taken up in glory. Ἁναλαμβάνειν is the formal term to describe the ascension of Christ (see Acts 1:2, Acts 1:22), and the reference is most probably to that event. Comp. lxx, 2 Kings 2:11, of Elijah, and Matthew href="/desk/?q=mt+16:27&sr=1">Matthew 16:27; Matthew 25:31; Mark 8:38; Luke 9:31; Luke 12:27; 1 Corinthians 15:43; 2 Corinthians 3:7, 2 Corinthians 3:8, 2 Corinthians 3:11.Additional Note on 1 Timothy 3:16Christ's existence before his incarnation was purely spiritual ( ἐν πνεύματι ). He was in the form of God (Philemon 2:6): He was the effulgence of God's glory and the express image of his substance (Hebrews 1:3), and God is spirit (John 4:24). From this condition he came into manifestation in the flesh ( ἐν σαρκί ). He became man and entered into human conditions (Philemon 2:7, Philemon 2:8). Under these human conditions the attributes of his essential spiritual personality were veiled. He did not appear to men what he really was. He was not recognised by them as he who “was in the beginning with God” (John 1:1, John 1:2); as “the image of the invisible God” (Colossians 1:15); as one with God (John 10:30; John 14:9); as he who had all power in heaven and earth (Matthew 28:18); who was “before all things and by whom all things consist” (Colossians 1:17); who was “the king of the ages” (1 Timothy 1:17). On the contrary, he was regarded as an impostor, a usurper, and a blasphemer. He was hated, persecuted, and finally murdered. He was poor, tempted, and tried, a man of sorrows. -DIVIDER-
-DIVIDER-
The justification or vindication of what he really was did not therefore come out of the fleshly sphere. He was not justified in the flesh. It came out of the sphere of his spiritual being. Glimpses of this pneumatic life ( ἐν πνεύματι ) flashed out during his life in the flesh. By his exalted and spotless character, by his works of love and power, by his words of authority, in his baptism and transfiguration, he was vindicated as being what he essentially was and what he openly claimed to be. These justifications were revelations, expressions, and witnesses of his original, essential spiritual and divine quality; of the native glory which he had with the Father before the world was. It was the Spirit that publicly indorsed him (John 1:32, John 1:33): the words which he spake were spirit and life (John 6:63): he cast out demons in the Spirit of God (Matthew 12:28): his whole earthly manifestation was in demonstration of the Spirit. These various demonstrations decisively justified his claims in the eyes of many. His disciples confessed him as the Christ of God (Luke 9:20) some of the people said “this is the Christ” (John 7:41): others suspected that he was such (John 4:29). Whether or not men acknowledged his claims, they felt the power of his unique personality. They were astonished at his teaching, for he taught them as one having authority (Matthew 7:28, Matthew 7:29). -DIVIDER-
-DIVIDER-
Then followed the more decisive vindication in his resurrection from the dead. Here the work of the Spirit is distinctly recognised by Paul, Romans 1:4. See also Romans 8:11. In the period between his resurrection and ascension his pneumatic life came into clearer manifestation, and added to the vindication furnished in his life and resurrection. He seemed to live on the border-line between the natural and the spiritual world, and the powers of the spiritual world were continually crossing the line and revealing themselves in him. -DIVIDER-
-DIVIDER-
In the apostolic preaching, the appeal to the vindication of Christ by the Spirit is clear and unequivocal. The spiritual nourishment of believers is “the supply of the Spirit of Jesus Christ” (Philemon 1:19): the Holy Spirit is called “the Spirit of Christ” (Romans 8:9; Galatians 4:6): Paul identifies Christ personally with the Spirit (2 Corinthians 3:17); and in Romans 8:9, Romans 8:10, “Spirit of God,” “Spirit of Christ,” and “Christ” are used as convertible terms. The indwelling of the Spirit of Christ is the test and vindication of belonging to Christ (Romans 8:9). Thus, though put to death in the flesh, in the Spirit Christ is vindicated as the Son of God, the Christ of God, the manifestation of God. -DIVIDER-
-DIVIDER-
[source]

Titus 2:1 Speak thou [λάλει]
See on Matthew 28:18; see on John 8:26. [source]
Hebrews 1:1 Spake [λαλήσας]
See on Matthew 28:18. Often in the Epistle of the announcement of the divine will by men, as Hebrews 7:14; Hebrews 9:19; by angels, as Hebrews 2:2; by God himself or Christ, as Hebrews 2:3; Hebrews 5:5; Hebrews 12:25. In Paul, almost always of men: once of Christ, 2 Corinthians 13:3; once of the Law, personified, Romans 3:9. [source]
Hebrews 1:2 At the end of these days [επ εσχατου των ημερων τουτων]
In contrast with παλαι — palai above. Hath spoken First aorist indicative of λαλεω — laleō the same verb as above, “did speak” in a final and full revelation. In his Son In sharp contrast to εν τοις προπηταις — en tois prophētais “The Old Testament slopes upward to Christ” (J. R. Sampey). No article or pronoun here with the preposition εν — en giving the absolute sense of “Son.” Here the idea is not merely what Jesus said, but what he is (Dods), God‘s Son who reveals the Father (John 1:18). “The revelation was a son-revelation ” (Vincent). Hath appointed First aorist (kappa aorist) active of τιτημι — tithēmi a timeless aorist. Heir of all things See Mark 12:6 for ο κληρονομος — ho klēronomos in Christ‘s parable, perhaps an allusion here to this parable (Moffatt). The idea of sonship easily passes into that of heirship (Galatians 4:7; Romans 8:17). See the claim of Christ in Matthew 11:27; Matthew 28:18 even before the Ascension. Through whom The Son as Heir is also the Intermediate Agent “The ages” (secula, Vulgate). See Hebrews 11:3 also where τους αιωναστον κοσμον — tous aiōnas = τα παντα — ton kosmon (the world) or the universe like αιων — ta panta (the all things) in Hebrews 1:3; Romans 11:36; Colossians 1:16. The original sense of αει — aiōn (from aei always) occurs in Hebrews 6:20, but here “by metonomy of the container for the contained” (Thayer) for “the worlds” (the universe) as in lxx, Philo, Josephus. [source]
Revelation 5:6 Seven horns and seven eyes []
See remarks on the Apocalyptic imagery, Revelation 1:16. The horn is the emblem of might. See 1 Samuel 2:10; 1 Kings 22:11; Psalm 112:9; Daniel 7:7, Daniel 7:20sqq.; Luke 1:69. Compare Matthew 28:18. The eyes represent the discerning Spirit of God in its operation upon all created things. [source]
Revelation 4:1 A trumpet [σάλπιγγος]
See on Matthew 24:31. Properly a war-trumpet, though the word was also used of a sacred trumpet, with the epithet ἱερά sacredSpeaking - saying ( λαλούσης - λέγουσα )See on Matthew 28:18. The former verb indicates the breaking of the silence, the latter the matter of the address. [source]
Revelation 4:1 See on Matthew 24:31 . Properly a war-trumpet , though the word was also used of a sacred trumpet, with the epithet ἱερά sacred Speaking - saying [λαλούσης - λέγουσα]
See on Matthew 28:18. The former verb indicates the breaking of the silence, the latter the matter of the address. [source]
Revelation 3:7 He that hath the key of David [και ουδεις κλεισει]
This epithet comes from Isaiah 22:22, where Eliakim as the chief steward of the royal household holds the keys of power. Christ as the Messiah (Revelation 5:5; Revelation 22:16) has exclusive power in heaven, on earth, and in Hades (Matthew 16:19; Matthew 28:18; Romans 14:9; Philemon 2:9.; Revelation 1:18). Christ has power to admit and exclude of his own will (Matthew 25:10.; Ephesians 1:22; Revelation 3:21; Revelation 19:11-16; Revelation 20:4; Revelation 22:16). [source]
Revelation 12:10 Now is come [αρτι εγενετο]
Αρτι — Arti (John 13:33) shows how recent the downfall of Satan here proleptically pictured as behind us in time (aorist tense εγενετο — egeneto).The salvation (η σωτηρια — hē sōtēria). Here “the victory” as in Revelation 7:10; Revelation 19:1.The power Gods power over the dragon (cf. Revelation 7:12; Revelation 11:17; Revelation 19:1).The kingdom (η βασιλεια — hē basileia). “The empire of God” as in Revelation 11:15.The authority of his Christ Which Christ received from the Father (Matthew 28:18; John 17:2). See Revelation 11:15 (Psalm 2:2) for “his Anointed.”The accuser (ο κατηγωρ — ho katēgōr). The regular form, κατηγορος — katēgoros occurs in John 8:10; Acts 23:30, Acts 23:35; Acts 25:16, Acts 25:18 and in many MSS. here in Revelation 12:10, but A reads κατηγωρ — katēgōr which Westcott and Hort accept. It was once considered a Greek transliteration of a Hebrew word, but Deissmann (Light, etc., p. 93f.) quotes it from a vernacular magical papyrus of the fourth century a.d. with no sign of Jewish or Christian influence, just as διακων — diakōn appears as a vernacular form of διακονος — diakonos Only here is the word applied to Satan in the N.T. In late Judaism Satan is the accuser, and Michael the defender, of the faithful.Of our brethren The saints still on earth battling with Satan and his devices.Which accuseth them (ο κατηγορων αυτους — ho katēgorōn autous). Articular present active participle of κατηγορεω — katēgoreō old verb, to accuse, usually with the genitive of the person (John 5:45), but here with the accusative. This is the devil‘s constant occupation (Job 1:6.).Day and night Genitive of time. “By day and by night.” [source]
Revelation 12:10 The power [η δυναμις]
Gods power over the dragon (cf. Revelation 7:12; Revelation 11:17; Revelation 19:1).The kingdom (η βασιλεια — hē basileia). “The empire of God” as in Revelation 11:15.The authority of his Christ Which Christ received from the Father (Matthew 28:18; John 17:2). See Revelation 11:15 (Psalm 2:2) for “his Anointed.”The accuser (ο κατηγωρ — ho katēgōr). The regular form, κατηγορος — katēgoros occurs in John 8:10; Acts 23:30, Acts 23:35; Acts 25:16, Acts 25:18 and in many MSS. here in Revelation 12:10, but A reads κατηγωρ — katēgōr which Westcott and Hort accept. It was once considered a Greek transliteration of a Hebrew word, but Deissmann (Light, etc., p. 93f.) quotes it from a vernacular magical papyrus of the fourth century a.d. with no sign of Jewish or Christian influence, just as διακων — diakōn appears as a vernacular form of διακονος — diakonos Only here is the word applied to Satan in the N.T. In late Judaism Satan is the accuser, and Michael the defender, of the faithful.Of our brethren The saints still on earth battling with Satan and his devices.Which accuseth them (ο κατηγορων αυτους — ho katēgorōn autous). Articular present active participle of κατηγορεω — katēgoreō old verb, to accuse, usually with the genitive of the person (John 5:45), but here with the accusative. This is the devil‘s constant occupation (Job 1:6.).Day and night Genitive of time. “By day and by night.” [source]
Revelation 12:10 The authority of his Christ [η εχουσια του Χριστου αυτου]
Which Christ received from the Father (Matthew 28:18; John 17:2). See Revelation 11:15 (Psalm 2:2) for “his Anointed.”The accuser (ο κατηγωρ — ho katēgōr). The regular form, κατηγορος — katēgoros occurs in John 8:10; Acts 23:30, Acts 23:35; Acts 25:16, Acts 25:18 and in many MSS. here in Revelation 12:10, but A reads κατηγωρ — katēgōr which Westcott and Hort accept. It was once considered a Greek transliteration of a Hebrew word, but Deissmann (Light, etc., p. 93f.) quotes it from a vernacular magical papyrus of the fourth century a.d. with no sign of Jewish or Christian influence, just as διακων — diakōn appears as a vernacular form of διακονος — diakonos Only here is the word applied to Satan in the N.T. In late Judaism Satan is the accuser, and Michael the defender, of the faithful.Of our brethren The saints still on earth battling with Satan and his devices.Which accuseth them (ο κατηγορων αυτους — ho katēgorōn autous). Articular present active participle of κατηγορεω — katēgoreō old verb, to accuse, usually with the genitive of the person (John 5:45), but here with the accusative. This is the devil‘s constant occupation (Job 1:6.).Day and night Genitive of time. “By day and by night.” [source]
Revelation 3:7 The holy, he that is true [ο αγιοσ ο αλητινος]
Separate articles (four in all) for each item in this description. “The holy, the genuine.” Asyndeton in the Greek. Latin Vulgate, Sanctus et Verus. αγιος — Hosea hagios is ascribed to God in Revelation 4:8; Revelation 6:10 (both αλητινος — hagios and αλητινος — alēthinos as here), but to Christ in Mark 1:24; Luke 4:34; John 6:69; Acts 4:27, Acts 4:30; 1 John 2:20, a recognized title of the Messiah as the consecrated one set apart. Swete notes that αλητης — alēthinos is verus as distinguished from verax So it is applied to God in Revelation 6:10 and to Christ in Revelation 3:14; Revelation 19:11 as in John 1:9; John 6:32; John 15:1.He that hath the key of David (και ουδεις κλεισει — ho echōn tēn klein Daueid). This epithet comes from Isaiah 22:22, where Eliakim as the chief steward of the royal household holds the keys of power. Christ as the Messiah (Revelation 5:5; Revelation 22:16) has exclusive power in heaven, on earth, and in Hades (Matthew 16:19; Matthew 28:18; Romans 14:9; Philemon 2:9.; Revelation 1:18). Christ has power to admit and exclude of his own will (Matthew 25:10.; Ephesians 1:22; Revelation 3:21; Revelation 19:11-16; Revelation 20:4; Revelation 22:16).And none shall shut Charles calls the structure Hebrew (future active indicative of ο ανοιγων — kleiō), and not Greek because it does not correspond to the present articular participle just before και ουδεις ανοιγει — ho anoigōn (the one opening), but it occurs often in this book as in the very next clause, “and none openeth” (κλειων — kai oudeis anoigei) over against κλειει — kleiōn (present active participle, opening) though here some MSS. read kleiei (present active indicative, open). [source]

What do the individual words in Matthew 28:18 mean?

And having come to [them] - Jesus spoke to them saying Has been given to Me all authority in heaven on the earth
Καὶ προσελθὼν Ἰησοῦς ἐλάλησεν αὐτοῖς λέγων Ἐδόθη μοι πᾶσα ἐξουσία ἐν οὐρανῷ ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς

προσελθὼν  having  come  to  [them] 
Parse: Verb, Aorist Participle Active, Nominative Masculine Singular
Root: προσέρχομαι  
Sense: to come to, approach.
  - 
Parse: Article, Nominative Masculine Singular
Root:  
Sense: this, that, these, etc.
Ἰησοῦς  Jesus 
Parse: Noun, Nominative Masculine Singular
Root: Ἰησοῦς  
Sense: Joshua was the famous captain of the Israelites, Moses’ successor.
ἐλάλησεν  spoke 
Parse: Verb, Aorist Indicative Active, 3rd Person Singular
Root: ἀπολαλέω 
Sense: to utter a voice or emit a sound.
αὐτοῖς  to  them 
Parse: Personal / Possessive Pronoun, Dative Masculine 3rd Person Plural
Root: αὐτός  
Sense: himself, herself, themselves, itself.
λέγων  saying 
Parse: Verb, Present Participle Active, Nominative Masculine Singular
Root: λέγω 
Sense: to say, to speak.
Ἐδόθη  Has  been  given 
Parse: Verb, Aorist Indicative Passive, 3rd Person Singular
Root: διδῶ 
Sense: to give.
μοι  to  Me 
Parse: Personal / Possessive Pronoun, Dative 1st Person Singular
Root: ἐγώ  
Sense: I, me, my.
ἐξουσία  authority 
Parse: Noun, Nominative Feminine Singular
Root: ἐξουσία  
Sense: power of choice, liberty of doing as one pleases.
οὐρανῷ  heaven 
Parse: Noun, Dative Masculine Singular
Root: οὐρανός  
Sense: the vaulted expanse of the sky with all things visible in it.
γῆς  earth 
Parse: Noun, Genitive Feminine Singular
Root: γῆ  
Sense: arable land.